The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pitman's Commercial Spanish Grammar (2nd ed.), by C. A. Toledano

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PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

C. A. TOLEDANO

PREFACE

With the best intention of justifying Messrs. PITMAN'S confidence in entrusting me with the compilation of a Spanish Grammar to form part of the series of "Commercial Grammars," I set to work to produce a book which, while avoiding pedantry and the agglomeration of superfluous and intricate rules which puzzle the student, should equally avoid falling into the extreme of coarseness which debases the subject under study, or the scrappiness resulting in gaps that perplex and discourage him. I have tried to be brief and clear in the rules given.

The vocabulary has been chosen carefully, avoiding the artificiality of too much commercial technology, but keeping constantly in view the object of the Series, viz., to produce grammars specially suitable for students preparing for a commercial career.

Whether I have succeeded in my efforts it is for the public to judge. I can only say that, after more than twenty-five years' teaching of Spanish in all its stages, privately, at the Manchester University and in the large classes of our public Institutions, I have tried my best to give the fruits of my experience to any interested young people who may be eager to learn a language beautiful, noble, and most useful.

I do not claim to have reached perfection. I only trust the book, such as it presents itself, will be of real help to the student.

C.A. TOLEDANO.

MANCHESTER, 1911.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

A (a) G (ge) M (eme) Rr (erre)
B (be) H (hache) N (ene) S (ese)
C (ce) I (i) Ñ (eñe) T (te)
Ch (che) J (jota) O (o) U (u)
D (de) K (ka) P (pe) V (ve)
E (e) L (ele) Q (cu) X (equis)
F (efe) Ll (elle) R (ere) Y (y griega or ye)
Z (zeta)

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

a as English a in f_a_ther e[1] " a " f_a_te[2] i " i " magaz_i_ne o[1] " o " n_o_te[2] u " u " r_u_le

These five sounds never vary, except that they are a little longer when they are stressed and shorter when they are not, as Yo amo (I love),[3] Amigo (friend), El cielo (heaven), Celeste (heavenly), Un recibo (a receipt), Interés (interest), Yo como (I eat), Contar (to count), Un buque (a ship), Una butaca (an armchair).

Y is considered a vowel in the conjunction y (and), and at the end of a word, as Rey (king), Hoy (to-day).

[Footnote 1: E and o are sounded a little more open when they form a diphthong with i and when they precede r followed by a consonant or r or l final, as Fernando (Ferdinand), Un tercio (a third), El tercer año (the third year), Porfiar (to insist), Amor (love), Español (Spanish).]

[Footnote 2: The a and o of "fate" and "note" are not pure vowel sounds. In English the a is distinctly pronounced a-ee and o is pronounced o-oo.

[Footnote 3: The examples given with their English equivalents should be learnt.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

There are no Diphthongs or Triphthongs in the English sense of two or three vowels meeting in one syllable and blending into a different sound, as "pause," "plough."

Every vowel is pronounced separately and each with its alphabetical sound, only the two or three vowels occurring in one syllable are pronounced rapidly, as Pausa (pause), Reino (kingdom), Cuenta (account), Buey (ox).

A, E and O never form diphthongs together. They may form diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with I and U.

CONSONANTS.

B is pronounced much more lightly than in English, with no pressure of the lips, as Libro (book), Brevedad (brevity).

C before E and I—th in "theatre," as La Cena (the supper), La Cerveza (the beer). Otherwise pronounced K as in English, as Caja (case, box), Color (colour), Cúbico (cubic).

Ch always as ch in "church" (never hard as in "monarch"), as
Chocolate (chocolate), Charla (prattle).

D at the end of a word or after a vowel is pronounced very softly and lightly, with a tinge of th in "they," as Madrid, Amado (loved), Encarnado (red).

G before E and I is pronounced guttural, as El general (the general), El giro (the draft, bill). This sound is equal to ch in the Scotch word "loch." In all other cases G is pronounced hard, as in the English word "gay"; as Gato (cat), Gobierno (government), Gusto (pleasure, taste).

J is always guttural, as Juan (John), Jornalero (day labourer), Junio
(June), Reloj (watch, clock).

Ll—ly, stronger than li in "pavilion," as Belleza (beauty), Folleto (leaflet).

Ñ—ny, stronger than ni in "pinion," as Niño (child), Caña (cane), El otoño (autumn).

Q is only used before ue and ui (and the u is then mute), as
Querido (dear, beloved), Yo quiero (I want).

R as in English, but it is always rolled, as Caro (dear, expensive), Pérdida (loss). At the beginning of a word or when preceded by a consonant it is rolled more strongly, as La rosa (the rose), Deshonra (dishonour).

T as in "tea," but never as t in "nation." It must be pronounced softly, not explosive, as Fortuna (fortune), Cuatro (four).

V is pronounced much more lightly than in English, as Vino (wine), Vivir (to live). By the common people V is often confounded with B, but educated Spaniards will always make the proper distinction.

NOTE.—In modern Spanish Z is not used before E or I, its place being supplied by C.

RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

RULE I.—Every letter is pronounced. There are no mute letters as b in "lamb" or n in "autumn."

EXCEPTIONS—H is not sounded as already explained in the alphabet. U is not sounded in the following syllables: que, qui, gue and gui, as Quedar (to remain), Quinta (villa), Guerra (war), Águila (eagle), unless the u in gue and gui has the diaeresis, as Argüir (to argue), Vergüenza (shame).

RULE II.—No consonant is doubled except C and N. C is found doubled in words like Acceder (to accede) when one C is hard—k and the other soft—th.

N is found doubled in words having the prefix in, as Innoble (ignoble), Innavegable (unnavigable). Also in Perenne (perennial) and a very few more words.

RULE III.—The stress of the voice falls on the last syllable but one in all words ending in a vowel or S or N; otherwise it falls on the last syllable, as Una factura (an invoice), Facturas (invoices), Hermano (brother), Cartas (letters), Ellos tienen (they have), Azul (blue), Abril (April), Labor (labour), Feliz (happy).

In diphthongs and triphthongs the stress is not on i or u, but falls on a, e or o, as Reina (queen), Gracia (grace), Igual (equal), Cielo (heaven).

When the diphthong is formed by i and u the last one bears the stress, as Un viudo (a widower), La ciudad (the city), Luisa (Louise).

The numerous exceptions to the above rule are all marked by the written accent (´), as Facturó (he invoiced), Escribirá (he will write), Háblame (speak to me), Inglés (English), Alemán (German), Útil (useful), Jóvenes (young men).

The stress of the voice should fall distinctly on the proper syllable according to the above rule, and the attention of the student must be earnestly called to this very important point.

A word in the plural maintains the stress on the same syllable as in its singular, as El océano (the ocean), Océanos (oceans), Cálculo (calculation), Cálculos (calculations), Inglés (Englishman), Ingleses (Englishmen); except Carácter (character), Caracteres (characters), Régimen (regime or rule), Regímenes (regimes or rules)—the latter hardly ever used in the plural.

SIGNS.

(2) To distinguish between two meanings of the same word, as El (the), Él (he); De (of), Que él dé (that he may give); Se (3rd person reflexive pronoun, "himself," etc.), Yo sé (I know); Más (more), Mas (but).

(3) In the following words established by use, as "ó" or "ú" (or), "é" (and), "á" (to).[4]

(4) In some words when used interrogatively, as Quién? (who?), Qué? (what?), Cuál? (which?), Cúyo? (whose?), Dónde? (where?).

(5) On I and U when they occur together with A, E or O, the I or U not belonging to the same syllable, viz., not forming diphthong with A, E or O, as Filosofía (philosophy), El continúa (he continues).

(6) On I following U when the I does not form a diphthong, but stands as a separate syllable, as Concluído (concluded), Imbuído (imbued).

[Footnote 4: According to the last edition of the Grammar of the
Spanish Academy, these words may now be written without the accent.]

The diaeresis is placed over u in "güe" and "güi" when the u is to be sounded.[5]

[Footnote 5: In poetry also to divide an ordinary diphthong into two syllables for the sake of rhythm.]

The tilde (~) is used on the letter N to turn it into Ñ, as Mañana (morning) (in old Spanish spelt Mannana).

These are used in Spanish both at the beginning and at the end of the question or exclamation, as ¿Qué quiere V.? (what do you want?), ¡Cuántos sufrimientos! (how much suffering!). Note that at the beginning they are reversed.

(1) Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters, as Un libro inglés (an English book).

(2) Days of the week generally (and sometimes the months of the year) are written with small letters.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

After the first syllable each succeeding one commences with a consonant, as a-for-tu-na-da-men-te (fortunately), except when a prefix occurs before a primitive word,[6] as Organizar (to organise).

When two consonants occur together one letter belongs to one syllable and the other to the next, as—

Ac-ci-den-te (accident) Pe-ren-ne (perennial) Tem-po-ral-men-te (temporarily) In-me-dia-to (immediate)

EXCEPTION—bl, br, pl, pr, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr and tr are not divided, as—

A-blan-dar (to soften)
Li-bro (book)
A-pla-zar (to postpone)
A-pre-ciar (to appreciate)
De-cla-mar (to declaim)
De-cre-tar (to decree)
A-me-dren-tar (to frighten)
Con-fla-gra-ción (conflagration)
Re-fren-dar (to countersign)
A-glo-me-rar (to agglomerate)
A-gran-dar (to enlarge)
En-con-trar (to meet)

If any of these combinations occur together with a third consonant, this of course will belong to the previous syllable, as

If four consonants come together, two belong to the first syllable and two to the next, as Obs-tru-ir (to obstruct).

LESSON I.

THE ARTICLE.

[Footnote 7: Spanish nouns are all masculine or feminine. There are no neuter nouns.]

El hombre (the man)—La mujer (the woman)
El libro (the book)—La pluma (the pen)

Los muchachos (the boys)—Las señoras (the ladies)
Los géneros (the goods)—Las facturas (the invoices)
Los lápices (the pencils)—Las cartas (the letters).

Un amigo (a friend)—Una amiga (a lady-friend)
Un padre (a father)—Una madre (a mother)

The Indefinite Article has no plural, but the Spanish plural forms "unos" (masc.) and "unas" (fem.) translate the English words "some" or "any," as Unos hermanos (some brothers), Unas hermanas (some sisters), Unos tinteros (some inkstands), Unas mesas (some tables). (The Spanish words "Algunos," "Algunas," are also used for the same purpose.)

NOTE 1.—Before a feminine noun singular commencing with a or ha use =El= and =Un= instead of La and Una if such nouns are stressed on the first syllable, as El águila (the eagle), El agua (the water), El alma (the soul). (The plural is regular, as Las águilas (the eagles).)

NOTE 2.—The Definite Article has a "neuter form" which is =Lo=. It cannot be used before a noun but before other parts of speech used to represent an abstract idea, as Yo amo lo bello (I love the beautiful, viz., all that which is beautiful), Lo sublime (the sublime, viz., all that which is sublime).

REGULAR VERBS.

1st Conjugation. Hablar (to speak). Pres. Part. Hablando (speaking). Past Part. Hablado (spoken).

Yo hablo (I speak) Nosotros (m.) hablamos (we speak)
Nosotras (f.) hablamos (we speak)

Tú hablas[8] (thou speakest) Vosotros (m.) habláis (you speak)
Vosotras (f.) habláis (you speak)

Él or Ella habla (he or she speaks) Ellos (m.) hablan (they speak)
Ellas (f.) hablan (they speak)
Usted habla (you speak)[9]. Ustedes hablan (you speak).[9]

[Footnote 8: The second person is only used in the familiar style, practically when in English the 2nd person would be addressed as "John" or "Frank" and not as "Mr. Smith" or "Mr. Brown."]

[Footnote 9: This is called the polite way of addressing and is the form in use. Note that the verb after it is in the 3rd person, because "Usted," "Ustedes" (which can be abbreviated as V. Vs.) are contractions of Vuestra merced (your grace), Vuestras mercedes (your graces). V. ama = your grace loves.]

2nd Conjugation. Temer (to fear). Pres. Part. Temiendo. Past Part. Temido.

3rd Conjugation. Partir (to depart, to set out). Pres. Part. Partiendo. Past Part. Partido.

VOCABULARY.

=á=, to, at =amar=[10], to love =el árbol=, the tree =las botas=, the boots =el capitán=, the captain =la camisa=, the shirt =la casaca=[11], the coat =comprar=, to buy =la flor=, the flower =el hombre=, the man =el hermano=, the brother =la hermana=, the sister =el joven=, the young man =la joven=, the young woman =el lápiz=, the pencil =el libro=, the book =la madre=, the mother =mas=, but =más=, more =la mujer=, the woman =nosotros tenemos=, we have =el oro=, gold =el padre=, the father =los pantalones=, the trousers =el papel=, the paper =para=, for =la plata=, silver =la pluma=, the pen =el sombrero=, the hat =él tiene=, he has =V. tiene=, you (sing.) have =Vs. tienen=, you (pl.) have =la tinta=, the ink =el tintero=, the inkstand =*tener=,[10] to have, to possess =yo tengo=, I have =el viejo=, the old man =la vieja=, the old woman =la virtud=, virtue

[Footnote 10: The verbs given in this vocabulary and the following are regular (i.e., they are conjugated respectively as the model verbs given) unless they are marked with an asterisk.]

EXERCISE 1 (1).

8. El oro y la plata son preciosos (are precious) mas la virtud es (is) más preciosa.

[Footnote 12: The auxiliary "Do" and "Did," used in English in interrogative and negative sentences, are not translated in Spanish.]

EXERCISE 2 (2).

The definite article El is contracted with the preposition de (of or from) into =Del= and with the preposition A, into al as—

Del extranjero: Of or from the foreigner.
Al caballero español: To the Spanish gentleman.

These are the only contractions that occur in Spanish; with the other prepositions the article simply follows, as—

By, for, with, in, on, without, behind, the father:
Por, Para, Con, En, Sobre, Sin, Tras, el padre.

The following are the principal cases in which the definite article is used in Spanish and not in English—

El Señor Fulano: Mr. So-and-So.
El Rey Jorge V.: King George V.
El Profesor Rosales: Professor Rosales.

The only exception is "Don" (Mr.), only used before Christian names, as
Don Francisco (Mr. Francis).

3. Generally before each of several nouns following each other when they are material possessions, as—

La casa y el jardín de mi hijo: My son's[14] house and garden. Las puertas y las ventanas de mi casa: The doors and windows of my house.

La diligencia, devoción, y virtud de mi primo: the diligence, devotion and virtue of my cousin.

The following are the principal cases in which the indefinite article is used in English and not in Spanish—

Es capitán[16]: He is a captain.
Soy francés: I am a Frenchman.
Se hizo actor: He became an actor.
Le elegimos miembro de esta sociedad: We elect him a member of this
society.
Fué elegido miembro: He was elected a member.

[Footnote 13: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 14: The 's = possessive does not exist in Spanish. "My son's house" must always be translated as "the house of my son."]

[Footnote 15: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 16: Except, of course, when we particularize, as—Es un capitán que conocí en Paris: He is a captain I knew in Paris.]

[Footnote 17: The Imperfect tense describes a past action or state in progress; the Past Definite narrates an event. Ex.: I met (past def.)] Charles, who wore (imp.) a black hat: Encontré á Carlos quien llevaba sombrero negro.]

[Footnote 18: The Subject-Pronoun may be left understood, and is generally omitted unless special stress is laid upon it.]

VOCABULARY.

=alemán=[19], German =beber=, to drink =bien=, well =café=, coffee =cerveza=, beer =clavel=, carnation =cliente=, client, customer =comer=, to eat =escribir=[20], to write =estudiar=, to study =exportar=, to export =extranjero=, foreigner =ferretería=, ironware =grande= (pl. =grandes=), large =hijo=, son =hija=, daughter =italiano=, Italian =jardinero=, gardener =leer=, to read =mañana=, morning, to-morrow =manzana=, apple =máquina=, machine =mesa=, table =mi=, my =mucho= (m.), much =mucha= (f.), much =muy=, very =pera=, pear =pero=, but =pobre=, poor =¿qué?= what? =que=, that, who, which =rosa=, rose =su=, his, her, their =su … de V=., your =té=, tea =el … de V=., your =vino=, wine =violeta=, violet

EXERCISE 1 (3).

4. No, Señor, el primo de mi amigo no habla bien el alemán pero habla muy bien el inglés.

EXERCISE 2 (4).

4. They buy machines and ironware, but my correspondent in Havana buys prints in very large quantities (cantidades).

THE NOUN.

When there is no real gender, nouns are called masculine or feminine according to their terminations.

GENERAL RULE.—All nouns that terminate in a, ión, d, also abstract nouns ending in ez, are feminine, as—

La villa: The town. La nación[21]: The nation.
La ciudad: The city or large town. La honradez: Honesty.
The other terminations are masculine.

There are many exceptions to the above rule, principally in nouns ending in E.[22]

[Footnote 21: English words ending in "tion" end in ción in Spanish.
(Note the accent.)]

Nouns ending in a vowel which is not stressed and also nouns ending in E bearing the stress, add =S= to form the plural.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. Nouns ending in Z in the sing. change it into =Ces=. 2. Nouns ending in S do not change unless the last syllable is stressed.

EXAMPLES—

El amo: The master. Los amos: The masters.
El cuñado: The brother-in-law. Los cuñados: The brothers-in-law.
La cuñada: The sister-in-law. Las cuñadas: The sisters-in-law.
El yerno: The son-in-law. Los yernos: The sons-in-law.
La nuera: The daughter-in-law. Las nueras: The daughters-in-law.
El árbol: The tree. Los árboles: The trees.
El examen: The examination. Los exámenes: The examinations.
El lápiz: The pencil. Los lápices: The pencils.
El ómnibus: The omnibus. Los ómnibus: The omnibuses.
El jabalí: The boar. Los jabalíes: The boars.

[Footnote 23: Words ending in accented vowels are very few and the rule for those ending in á, ó, ú is not very strict.]

Hijodalgo (a gentleman by birth), literally, "son of something"; Plu.,
Hijosdalgo (literally, "sons of something ").
Ferrocarril (railway), literally, "iron railroad"; Plu., Ferrocarriles
(literally, "iron railroads").

[Footnote 24: A verb as a component part does not change, as El portabandera (the standard-bearer), Los portabanderas (the standard-bearers).]

[Footnote 25: Viz. used only before the past participle of another verb, as (Yo) he hablado (I have spoken).]

Pres. Part., Habiendo. Pres. Part., Teniendo. Past Part., Habido. Past Part., Tenido.

He (I have), etc. Tengo (I have, I possess), etc.
Has Tienes
Ha Tiene
Hemos Tenemos
Habéis Tenéis
Han Tienen

Había (I had), etc. Tenía (I had, I possessed, etc.)
Habías Tenías
Había Tenía
Habíamos Teníamos
Habíais Teníais
Habían Tenían

Hube (I had), etc. Tuve (I had, I possessed), etc.
Hubiste Tuviste
Hubo Tuvo
Hubimos Tuvimos
Hubisteis Tuvisteis
Hubieron Tuvieron

VOCABULARY.

=allí=, there =aquí=, here =buscar=[26], to look for =caballo=, horse =caja=, box, case =el capital=, the capital, money =la capital=, the capital, town =comprender=, to understand =copiador=, copybook =creer=, to believe, to think =dependiente=, clerk =factura=, invoice =fardo=, bale =Francés=, Frenchman =girar=, to draw, (a bill of exchange) =el idioma=, the language =Inglés=, Englishman =inteligencia=, intelligence =mal=, badly =muselina=, muslin =nunca=, never =país=, country =pequeño=, little (adj.) =poco=, little (adv. and subs.) =el porta-ramillete= or =florero=, the flower-stand =¿quién?= who? whom? =seda=, silk =socio=, partner =solamente=, only =sólo=, (adv.) only =el tema=, the exercise

EXERCISE 1 (5).

2. No, Señor, estudio el portugués y mi hermano comprende el español perfectamente (perfectly).

4. Los comerciantes escriben cartas y sus dependientes escriben las facturas y algunas cosas más.

6. París, Berlín, Roma, y Petrograd son las capitales de Francia, Alemania, Italia y Rusia.

7. ¿Cómo se llaman (what are the names of) las capitales de España y Portugal? Madrid y Lisboa.

EXERCISE 2 (6).

4. He understands English perfectly (perfectamente), but he speaks Spanish badly.

18. The merchant has received (recibido) four bales of silk handkerchiefs (pañuelo) and three cases of prints and muslins.

THE ADJECTIVE.

The Adjective in Spanish agrees with the noun it qualifies, in gender and number, as—

El periódico italiano: The Italian newspaper.
La prensa americana: The American press.

It generally follows the nouns as in the above examples, although exceptions will be found, e.g., when the adjective recalls to our mind a quality which is already known to belong to it, it generally precedes the noun, as—

He visto sus hermosas flores: I have seen his beautiful flowers.[30]
Adjectives form their plural in the same way as nouns.

[Footnote 30: His flowers are known (or supposed) to be beautiful, before we say it.]

Adjectives of NATIONALITY which end in a consonant add =A= to form the feminine, as—

El sastre francés: The French tailor.
La modista francesa: The French milliner.

Un hombre socarrón: A sly or cunning man.
Una sonrisa socarrona: A cunning smile.

EXCEPT Joven (young), Común (common), and Ruin (base, sordid), which do not change for the feminine.

Un comerciante emprendedor: An enterprising merchant.
Una casa emprendedora: An enterprising firm.

EXCEPT =Comparative= adjectives ending in or, as Mejor (better), Peor (worse), which do not change for the feminine.

There are a very few adjectives ending in ete and ote. These change into =eta= and =ota= for the feminine.

(1) To form the Passive voice as, Le amo (I love him), Soy amado de él (I am loved by him).

(2) To denote an inherent quality, viz., forming part and parcel with the subject, as Este hombre es hábil (this man is clever).]

(1) To denote state in locality, viz., to be in a place, as Estoy aquí (I am here), Manchester está en Inglaterra (Manchester is in England)

(2) To denote condition (as opposed to an inherent quality), as Este hombre está cansado (this man is tired).]

VOCABULARY.

=activo=, active =ahora=, now =un año=, a year =aquel, ese= (m.), that =aquella, esa= (f.), that =bayeta=, baize =célebre=, celebrated =cima=, top =criados=, men-servants =criadas=, maid-servants =el día=, the day =ejército=, army =encuadernado=, bound, (of books) =escritorio=, writing-desk =los fósforos=, the matches =Gales=, Wales =juventud=, youth, young age. =el lacre=, the sealing-wax =lectura=, reading =limpiar=, to clean =limpio=, clean =mayormente=, especially =médico=, doctor =el monte=, the mountain =la nieve=, the snow =por tanto=, therefore =puerta=, door =siempre=, always =sincero=, sincere =soldado=, soldier =terciopelo=, velvet =vela=, candle =ventana=, window

EXERCISE 1 (7).

8. Se ha alistado (he has enlisted) en el ejército inglés por cinco (five) años.

11. Las cimas de algunos montes están[37] cubiertas (covered) siempre de nieve.

14. Estos tinteros son limpiados todos los días (every day) por los dependientes ó por las criadas.

EXERCISE 2 (8).

2. My brother-in-law is a good clerk but he is tired of working (de trabajar).[38]

9. Yes, they sold them (los vendieron) yesterday (ayer); also the muslin and prints.

11. The Germans are a very active and hard-working (trabajador) nation, and they deserve (merecen) therefore our sincere admiration.

=COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES=.

The =positive degree= expresses the quality without any further idea of comparison, as Feliz (happy), Rico (rich).

EXAMPLES—

Mi tío es más pobre que su hermano: My uncle is poorer than his brother.
Su mujer es menos rica que él: His wife is less rich than he.
Soy tan feliz como V.: I am as happy as you.
No es tan amable como su primo: He is not so amiable as his cousin.

EXAMPLES—

Another way to form the Superlative Absolute[39] is by adding =ísimo= instead of using muy. If the adjective ends in a vowel, this is elided before adding ísimo.

EXAMPLES—

Estas frutas son muy maduras: These fruits are very ripe.
Estas frutas son madurísimas: These fruits are very ripe indeed.
Estos tenderos son muy ricos: These shopkeepers are very rich.
Aquellos son riquísimos: Those (others) are very rich indeed.

ble change it into =bil=, as Amable, amabilísimo. co " " =qu=, as Rico, riquísimo. go " " =gu=, as Largo, larguísimo.

Adjectives of more than three syllables ending in ble, adjectives ending in two vowels, or in one vowel accented, should always take =muy= and not add ísimo for the Superlative Absolute.

Besides the regular forms of the Comparative and Superlative degrees, there are the following irregular forms—

Mejor (better). Óptimo (very good or best). Peor (worse). Pésimo (very bad or worst). Mayor (larger). Máximo (very large or largest). Menor (smaller). Mínimo (very small or smallest). Superior (higher). Supremo (very high or highest). Inferior (lower). Ínfimo (very low or lowest).

[Footnote 40: The Future Tense Indicative Mood and the Conditional Mood are formed from the Infinitive Mood by adding to the Infinitive the terminations: é, ás, á, emos, éis, án for the future; and ía, ías, ía, íamos, íais, ían for the conditional mood.]

VOCABULARY.

=alguno,-a=,[41] some or any (s.) =algunos,-as=,[42] some or any (pl.) =amarillo=, yellow =barba, barbas=, beard =barbilla, barba=, chin =blanco=, white =boca=, mouth =cabello=, hair =cabeza=, head =café, castaño=, brown, (dyed) =cepillo=, brush =cualquiera= (s.),[43] any (affirmative) =cualesquiera= (pl.) any (affirmative) =dientes=, teeth =dinero=, money =encarnado=, red =escoba=, broom =estampar=, to print (calico) =la frente=, the forehead =lengua=, tongue =malo=,[44] bad, wicked =manteca=, butter =moreno=, brown, (natural colour) =(la) nariz=, nose =necesitar=, to want, to need, to be in want of. =ninguno,-a= (s.) any (after a negative) =ningunos,-as= (pl.) any (after a negative) =el ojo=, the eye. =padres=,[45] parents =percal=, calico =queremos=, we want *=querer=, to want, to wish to have =ellos quieren=, they want =yo quiero=, I want =V. quiere=, you want =regla=, ruler =si=, if =la tez=, complexion =un poco de=,[46] a little, some, or any =verde=, green

[Footnote 41: Before a masculine noun "Alguno" and "Ninguno" drop the o, as Algún dinero (some money). The feminine "Alguna" and "Ninguna" never changes.]

[Footnote 43: "Cualquiera" generally drops the a before a noun, as
Cualquier libro (any book).]

[Footnote 44: Before a masculine noun it drops the o, as Un mal muchacho (a bad boy). The feminine is always "mala."]

[Footnote 45: The masculine plural includes the plural of both genders, as Los padres (the parents, father and mother), Los hermanos (the brothers or the brother(s) and sister(s).)]

[Footnote 46: Used for both genders, as Un poco de vino (a little wine),
Un poco de cerveza (a little beer).]

EXERCISE 1 (9).

1. Los percales estampados y los blancos están todos prontos para el vapor (steamer) que partirá mañana.

4. Hemos hablado á una Señora de tez morena, cabeza hermosa y ojos inteligentes.

7. También se llama barba ó barbas el pelo (hair) que crece (grows) en ella (on it) á los hombres.

15. Mi cuñado no necesita comprar libros; tiene muchísimos, algunos viejos (old), otros nuevos (new), y tres ó cuatro (three or four) novísimos,[47] uno de ellos (of them) es bonísimo.[47]

[Footnote 47: Adjectives containing ie or ue change them into e and o before adding ísimo, as Nuevo, novísimo; cierto, certísimo.]

EXERCISE 2 (10).

6. There are (hay) many inkstands in this shop (tienda); do you want any? (quiere V. alguno? or algunos?).

14. We want to study Spanish because it is (es) very necessary in commerce (en el comercio).

15. If you study with attention you will soon (pronto) speak and write Spanish very well.

16. John speaks French very badly but he is studying it (lo está estudiando) with much attention.

[Footnote 48: "Some" and "any," following a verb and referring to a singular noun previously mentioned, are not to be translated.]

[Footnote 49: "Some" and "any" are generally not translated when they are not used in a partitive sense, i.e., with an idea of a limited quantity.]

CARDINAL NUMBERS.

Uno,[50] una 1 Cuarenta 40
Dos 2 Cuarenta y uno or Cuarentiuno 41
Tres 3 etc. etc.
Cuatro 4 Cincuenta 50
Cinco 5 Sesenta 60
Seis 6 Setenta 70
Siete 7 Ochenta 80
Ocho 8 Noventa 90
Nueve 9 Ciento[52] 100
Diez 10 Ciento y uno or Cientiuno 101
Once 11 Ciento y dos or Cientidós, 102
Doce 12 etc. etc.
Trece 13 Ciento diez 110
Catorce 14 Doscientos,-as 200
Quince 15 Trescientos,-as 300
Diez y seis or Dieciséis 16 Cuatrocientos,-as 400
Diez y siete or Diecisiete 17 Quinientos,-as 500
Diez y ocho or Dieciocho 18 Seiscientos,-as 600
Diez y nueve or Diecinueve 19 Setecientos,-as 700
Veinte 20 Ochocientos,-as 800
Veinte y uno or Veintiuno[51] 21 Novecientos,-as 900
Veinte y dos or Veintidós, 22 Mil 1,000
    etc. etc. Dos mil, etc. 2,000
Treinta 30 Cien[53] mil 100,000
Treinta y uno or Treintiuno, 31 Cien mil y uno 100,001
    etc. etc. Cien mil y diez 100,010
                                     Un millón 1,000,000

[Footnote 51: "Ciento" becomes "cien." ("Cien" is found instead of "ciento," even standing alone.)]

[Footnote 53: "Ciento" drops the to also before "mil"; and of course before "millón" (a noun).]

"Ciento" and "mil" are not preceded by "uno" except in 101,000, 201,000, etc., to avoid ambiguity, as—

Doscientos mil soldados (200,000 soldiers).
Doscientas y un mil millas (201,000 miles).

"One million inhabitants" is translated by Un millón de habitantes. (Note.—The de cannot be omitted.)

In the case of more than one million the word "millón" must be plural—millones, as—

As will have been observed, besides "uno," "doscientos," "trescientos," etc., change the os into =as= for the feminine.

[Footnote 54: The Future Indic. and the Cond. mood of "Haber" and "Tener" are formed irregularly from the Infinitive mood, the e after the root Hab being dropped, and after the root Ten being changed to d.]

      (1) Before nouns; (3) When denoting possession;
      (2) When used impersonally; (4) Before Feliz, Infeliz, Rico,
                                        Pobre.]

VOCABULARY.

=acabar de=,[56] to have just =almacén=, warehouse =aprender=, to learn =ayudar=, to help =bañar=, to wet, to bathe, to water =bicicleta=, bicycle =certísimo=, most certain =discípulo=, pupil =disfrutar=, to enjoy =él es, ella es=,[57] it is =ello= (neuter),[57] it =este= (m.), =esta= (f.), this =esto= (neuter),[58] this =estos= (m.), =estas= (f.), these =la fecha=, the date =la gente=, the people =hermosamente=, beautifully =importancia=, importance =La India=, India =libre=, free =maestro=, master, teacher =la mayor parte=, most, the majority =el mes=, the month =mismo=, same =novísimo=, brand new =otro=, other, another =el Sena=,[59] River Seine =el Tajo=, River Tagus =el Támesis=, River Thames =también=, also, too =tienda=, shop =ventaja=, advantage

[Footnote 56: Followed by the verb in the infinitive mood, as Acabar de escribir (to have just written).]

[Footnote 57: "It" (subject) is most generally left understood, as "It is useful" (Él, ella, or ello) es útil.]

[Footnote 58: Referring to a whole statement, as Esto or ello es justo. This or it (what you have just said) is right.]

[Footnote 59: Names of rivers are masculine because the word "río" (river) is understood.]

EXERCISE 1 (11).

6. Es certísimo que los almacenes y las tiendas de esta calle disfrutan de grandes ventajas.

13. Necesitamos comprar manteca pero no la compramos porque no queremos gastar dinero.

[Footnote 60: Names of countries should not take the article (the rule is not very strict, however). EXCEPTIONS: La India, El Perú, El Japón (Japan).]

EXERCISE 2 (12).

5. He does (Sí, Señor), but the pupils must study and learn their lessons well and work diligently (diligentemente).[61]

6. This morning I was writing a letter when my sister spoke of the bicycle (which [62]) she wants to buy.

7. Did you sell the muslins and prints (which) you bought last year (el año pasado)?

8. The merchant has drawn a bill at three months' date for (por) the velvets (which [62]) he sold to the Spanish customer.

13. It is a large garden with many flowers, roses, carnations, violets and other plants (plantas).

[Footnote 61: To form an adverb from an adjective add mente as you add "ly" in English. If the adjective changes for the feminine add mente to the feminine form, as rico (m.), rica (f.)—ricamente (richly).]

ORDINAL NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS.

[Footnote 63: Ordinal adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they accompany or for which they stand. Final o changes into a for the feminine, and the plural is formed by adding s.]

"Primero," "tercero," and "Postrero" drop the =O= before a masculine noun singular,[64] as—

El primer pedido: The first order.
El tercer lote: The third lot.
El postrer envío: The last shipment.

[Footnote 64: Eight words in all present this peculiarity, viz., uno, alguno, ninguno, bueno, malo, primero, tercero, postrero (these last two not always).]

After "vigésimo" ordinal numbers are generally substituted by cardinal numbers, as—

Numbers following names of kings, etc., are ordinal up to the tenth; then generally cardinal, as—

From 1/11th upwards, fractions are formed from cardinal numbers adding to them the termination =avo=, as—

Un need not be used before the fractions 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4, preceded by an integer, as—

Uno y cuarto: One and a quarter.
Cuatro y tercio: Four and a third.
La mitad: The half.
La tercera parte: The 3rd part.
La cuarta parte: The 4th part.
La duodécima parte: The 12th part.

[Footnote 65: If the cardinal number ends in a vowel, this is elided, as veinte—un veintavo (1/20th). If it ends in ce the c is changed into z as, doce—un dozavo (1/12th).]

Un par: A pair. Una treintena: A set of 30.[66]
Una decena (half a score).[66] Una centena: A set of 100.[66]
Una docena (a dozen).[66] Un centenar: A set of 100.[66]
Una veintena: A score.[66] Un ciento: A set of 100.[66]
Un millar: A set of 1,000.[66]

[Footnote 66: Also the number approximately, as: Una treintena de libros: (about 30 books).]

[Footnote 67: This tense is formed from the first person singular of the present indicative by changing the last vowel into =e= for the 1st conjugation and into =a= for the 2nd and 3rd conjugations. These remain the ruling vowels throughout the tense.

N.B.—The Subjunctive Mood occurs only in dependent sentences when the action is not expressed in a positive manner but is doubtful or merely contingent.]

VOCABULARY.

=actual=, present =al por mayor, por menor=, wholesale, retail =arroz=, rice =artículo=, article =asociación de obreros=, trade union =blanquear=, to bleach =ya caigo=, I understand, I see =colocar=, to place =*conseguir=, to get =consignación=, consignment =contenido=, contents =decadencia=, decadence =delegado=, delegate =demasiado=, too, too much =difícil=, difficult =driles labrados=, figured drills =driles lisos=, plain drills =entrar á reinar=, to begin to reign =escoger, *elegir=, to choose, to select =extraño=, strange, queer, funny =el germen=, the germ =grueso=, thick, stout =hallar=, to find =ilustrado=, enlightened =incluyendo=, enclosing =limitar=, to limit =mientrastanto=, meanwhile =*obtener=, to get =peso=, weight =poder=, power =podríamos=, we should be able to, might, could =próximo=, next =rebaja=, abatement =rebajar, *reducir=, reduce, to abate =reducción=, abatement, reduction =reunión=, meeting =*salir=, to come, to go, out =*salir en=, to come to =solo= (adj.), alone =sólo, solamente= (adv.), only =sujeto á=, subject to =sumar=, to add =tocino=, bacon =tomar=, to take =varios=, several =verificarse=, to take place[68] =*verse obligado á=, to be compelled to[69]

EXERCISE 1 (13).

2. Nos han llegado el primero y el cuarto, pero el tercer lote no ha llegado todavía.

3. El postrer hombre á entrar en la reunión fué el delegado de la asociación de obreros.

5. Al por menor sale en seis peniques y cuarto, pero al por mayor podríamos darlo á cinco y tercio ó talvez un poquito menos, digamos (say) cinco y cinco dieciseisavos.

11. Felipe II entró á reinar en 1556. Ningún soberano (sovereign) de Europa podía competir en poder y en Estados con él, pero ya desde ese tiempo se observan (are observed)[70] los gérmenes de la decadencia que se verificó después.

12. Alfonso XIII actual rey de España es un monarca ilustrado y constitucional.

14. El primero y el quince de cada (each) mes, la Compañía efectúa (effects) sus pagos.

[Footnote 70: The verb with SE is reflexive or passive: se da, it gives itself or it is given; se observan, they observe themselves or are observed.]

EXERCISE 2 (14).

1. I shall be compelled (me veré obligado á) to abandon this undertaking. It is too difficult.

2. We received a consignment of rice, but the price demanded (pedido), 2-15/16d. a lb., is too dear; we shall never be able (nunca podremos) to get it; a better quality (calidad), whiter and stouter, was placed at 2-29/32d. but (sólo) a few days ago (hace algunos días).

3. If you cannot sell your plain and figured drills at the figures quoted it will be necessary to abate the price.

5. We shall consult our partners; meanwhile let us leave (dejemos)[71] the matter in abeyance (en suspenso).

6. He has chosen several designs (diseños, dibujos) for his lot of prints, but he finds that three of them are wrong (están equivocados).

7. Some firms always give wrong (falsos, inexactos) weights in their declarations.

11. We received your favour (su atenta) of 10th instant (del corriente), enclosing copy of your previous letter 1st ult. (p°, p°.) and have taken note of its contents.

12. By next mail (mala) we shall send you all the details required (que Vs. necesitan).

[Footnote 71: The Imperative Mood is like the Pres. Subj., except in the 2nd Person.]

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

We shall divide the Personal Pronouns into Subject Pronouns and Object
Pronouns.[72]

[Footnote 72: Grammarians often give the names—
          Nominative case for the Subject pronouns
          Accusative " " " Direct object pronouns
          Dative " " " Indirect object pronouns]

Instead of "Tú" or "Vosotros,-as," =V=. and =Vs=. are used in general conversation as already stated (the verb following in the 3rd person).

N.B.—These pronouns are left understood when no emphasis is required or where no ambiguity is possible, as—

(Yo) compro las telas: I buy the cloths.
(Él) gira las letras y firma las cartas: He draws the bills and signs
the letters.
(Ella) ha tenido una entrevista con su abogado: She has had an interview
with her barrister, lawyer or solicitor.

Yo he comprado la partida de ferretería y quincalla y no V.: I have bought the lot of ironware and small ware and not you.

These are divided into two classes—1. =Disjunctive=, viz., following a preposition—

  Mí (me) Nosotros-as (us)
  Tí (thee) Vosotros-as (you)
  Él (him, it, m.) Ellos-as (them)
  Ella (her, it, f.) Ello (neuter) (it, referring
                               to a whole statement)
  V. (you, sing.) Vs. (you, pl.)

EXAMPLES—

Ellos hablan de mí: They speak of me.
Nosotros trabajamos para él: We work for him.
Ella confía en tí, en V.: She trusts thee, you.
V. se declara contra ellos: You declare against them.

2. =Conjunctive=, viz., direct or indirect object of verb (without a preposition).

  Él me[73] ama (he loves me) Él nos ama (he loves us)
  Él te ama (he loves thee) Él os ama (he loves you)
  Él lo or le ama (he loves Él los ama (he loves them,
          him, it, m.) m.)
  Él la ama (he loves her, Él las ama (he loves them,
          or it, f.) f.)

[Footnote 73: N.B.—In the conjunctive form the 1st and 2nd persons are the same for both direct and indirect objects, but the 3rd pers. differs.]

Él me da he gives me (to me)
Él te da he gives thee (to thee)
Él le da he gives him (to him), her (to her), it (to it)
Él nos da he gives us (to us)
Él os da he gives you (to you)
Él les da he gives them (to them, m. and f.)

The direct and indirect object of verb may also be rendered by the pronoun in the Disjunctive form preceded by =á=, as—

á mí me or to me direct and indirect object á tí thee or to thee " " " " á él him or to him, " " " " it (m.) or " " " " to it (m.) " " " " á ella her or to her, " " " " it (f.) or " " " " to it (f.) " " " " á nosotros-as us or to us " " " " á vosotros-as you or to you " " " " á ellos them or " " " " to them (m.) " " " " á ellas them or " " " " to them (f.) " " " "

We have then a double form for the pronouns used as direct and indirect object of verb—one Conjunctive, the other Disjunctive.

The =Disjunctive= form is employed when emphasis or distinctness is required. It is seldom used alone,[74] Spaniards preferring to use it as a repetition after having used the Conjunctive form, as—

Él nos vende á nosotros géneros estampados y á V. géneros de fantasía: He sells to us printed cloth and to you fancies.

Déle V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

Dé V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

[Footnote 74: In sentences like "Le pagarán más que á mí" (they will pay him more than me), "me pagarán" is understood after que.]

VOCABULARY.

=acero=, steel =antes=, before—in point of time =asunto= (not =sujeto=), the subject-matter =Bolsa=, the Exchange =calcular=, to calculate =celebrarse=, to be celebrated, to take place =compañía anónima=, limited company =*concebir=, to conceive =conjunción=, conjunction =desfavorable=, unfavourable =donde=, where =emisión=, issue, of loans, etc. =emplearse=, to be employed, to be used =espalda=, shoulder (back) =explicar= to explain =explanar= to explain =falta de aceptación=, non-acceptance =falta de pago=, non-payment =la frase=, the phrase, sentence =ganancias y pérdidas=, profits and losses =el gerente=, the manager =*gobernar=, to govern =*haber=, there to be[75] =hay=, there is[75] =hay=, there are =el hecho=, the fact =la ley=, the law =llamar=, to call =más adelante=, later on =la mente=, the mind =los negocios=, the business =Pascua=, Easter =posición=, position =proyecto=, scheme, plan =pues, entonces=, then =regresar=, to come or go back =*saber=, to know =la semana pasada=, last week =sírvase V=., please =tenga la bondad de=, please =tratar=, to try =*valer=, to be worth =valor=, courage =*volver=, to turn, to go back, to turn back

[Footnote 75: As an impersonal verb, "haber" makes "hay" instead of "ha" in the Pres. Indicative.]

EXERCISE 1 (15).

5. ¿Y cómo sabemos que después de éstos se debe emplear el verbo (must be used) en subjuntivo?

6. Porque entonces la acción del verbo es representada[76] sólo como concebida en la mente y no se habla de ella como de un hecho.

9. Tan pronto como (as soon as) volvemos la espalda, nuestros negocios principian á sufrir.

10. Un caballero no hace nunca nada en espalda de otro, sino que (but) habla claro, y tiene el valor de sus opiniones.

13. Debe asistir á (attend) la reunión de Directores que se celebrará en Londres á primeros del mes que viene (at the beginning of next month).

16. ¿Cómo han salido Vs. de aquella especulación en las minas de cobre (copper mines)?

17. Hemos salido muy mal, la relación semestral (half-yearly report) de la compañía hace constar (shows) una situación muy desfavorable y no habrá dividendo este año.

EXERCISE 2 (16).

4. This is not calculated to produce (no se cree que esto producirá) any bad impression.

6. We take the liberty to call your attention to the position of your account (nos tomamos la libertad de dirigir …).

17. Please protest the bill in case of non-acceptance and then again for non-payment.

18. The law of supply and demand (demanda y oferta) governs the markets of the world (mundo).

20. Kindly take due note (debida or buena nota) of our signature at foot (firma al pie).

Pronouns in the Disjunctive form occupy the same position in the sentence as they do in English.

Yo le mostraré á V. mi libro mayor y mi diario: I shall show you my ledger and journal or day-book.

Me cedió los valores y efectos en cartera: He made over to me his stock of securities and bills.

El corredor le vió en la agencia de los vapores: The broker saw him at the steamship agent's.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. When a sentence begins with a verb, especially if the sentence is a long one, the Conjunctive pronoun may follow the verb, except when this is in the Subjunctive Mood, as—

Bonificóle esta cantidad en cuenta corriente para no perder el cliente: He credited him the amount in A/c current in order not to lose his customer.

N.B.—Students should not indulge in this liberty until they have acquired practice in the language. In conversation this change seldom occurs. When the change is used the Subject Pronoun is generally left understood.

2. When the verb is in the Infinitive Mood, Gerund, or Imperative Mood,[78] the Conjunctive Pronoun must follow, and is joined to the verb to form one word: as—

Lo mejor con estos géneros es venderlos en subasta:
The best thing with these goods is to sell them by auction.

Abandonándole la ganancia acabaremos con el asunto:
By giving up the profit to him, we shall end the matter.

[Footnote 78: By Imperative Mood, we mean Imperative Mood Affirmative. In Spanish there is no imperative mood negative, its place being taken by the Present Subjunctive, as—

If two Conjunctive pronouns meet, contrary to the English general rule, the pronoun which stands as indirect object precedes the pronoun standing as direct object,[79] as—

If these two pronouns are both in the 3rd person, the indirect object is changed into =Se=, as—

Nosotros se lo vendimos: We sold it to him.
V. se lo mandó (á ella)[80]: You sent it to her.
Nosotros se lo aconsejamos (á ellos)[80]: We gave them that advice.
Yo se lo digo (á V.)[80]: I tell it to you.

[Footnote 79: Combinations of me and te are very rare, and then te precedes whether direct or indirect object, the context clearly showing the meaning. In such cases it is better, however, to use a disjunctive form, for the indirect object, as—

[Footnote 80: Á él, á ella, á V., etc., may be added for clearness, when otherwise ambiguity might occur.]

VOCABULARY.

=administrador=, manager (of a branch house, etc.) =arancel=, custom-house tariff =aviso=, advice, notice =confianza=, trust, confidence =constantemente=, constantly =conveniente=, convenient, suitable =correo=, post, post office =*dar aviso=, to inform, to give notice to leave =*dar aviso de despedida=, to give notice of dismissal =de moda=, fashionable =devolver=, to give or send back =efectuar=, to effect =favorable=, favourable =fijar=, to fix =holgazán, haragán=, lazy =honrar=, to honour =indicar=, to indicate, to point out =largo=, long =noticia, noticias=, news =*poner en condiciones=, to enable =por=, or =de, su cuenta=, on his account =el sobre=, the envelope =tomar nota=, to take note, to notice =venta=, sale

EXERCISE 1 (17).

12. Dándonos sus instrucciones tan claras, nos pone en condiciones de servirle á toda su satisfacción (his entire satisfaction).

EXERCISE 2 (18).

5. We sent it to him yesterday; he will return it to us after he has read it (después que lo haya leído).

8. Well (bien)! he says (dice) that he will not give it to me until you tell him to do so (hasta que V. se lo diga).

18. There is nothing worthy of notice (no hay nada de particular) in our market to-day.

20. This circumstance (circunstancia) must have escaped your notice (debe habérsele pasado por alto).

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

These pronouns are not, of course, used as subject of the verb. They are used as the object of the verb when this and the subject are the same.

EXAMPLES—

Nosotros nos divertimos al mismo tiempo que hacemos negocios: We enjoy ourselves at the same time as we do business.

Ellos se respetan á sí y á otros también: They respect themselves and others too.

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí: She attributes the fault to herself. (more emphatic).

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí misma: She attributes the fault to herself (still more emphatic).

[Footnote 82: After con (with) si becomes Sigo; same change with mí and tí: conmigo, contigo, consigo, written in one word.]

The pronoun =Se= with any verb in the 3rd pers. sing. or plural may be used to form the passive voice, as—

Se han encaminado las reclamaciones á la Compañía de Seguros[83]:
The claims have been referred to the Insurance Company.

=Se= followed by a verb in the 3rd pers. sing.[84] translates the English "one," "people," "they" (indefinite), as the French "on" and the German "man," as—-

Se dice que habrá un alza[85] en el mercado: They say, or it is said, that there will be a rise in the market.

Se cree que no habrá Reforma Arancelaria en Inglaterra: People think, or it is thought, that there will not be Tariff Reform in England.

En la vejez se goza el fruto de una juventud laboriosa: In old age one enjoys the fruits of active youth or The fruits of active youth are enjoyed in old age.

[Footnote 84: Or we can use the 3rd pers. plur. of the verb without the pronoun.]

As will be seen, this is really a form of the passive voice rendered by "se," as "se goza" instead of "es gozado." But there are more typical examples, as—

Los géneros se han fabricado en Irlanda y se los ha (not han) plegado como lienzos irlandeses: The goods were made in Ireland and they folded them as Irish Linens.

A Conjunctive Reflexive Pronoun, whether direct or indirect object, always precedes any other conjunctive pronoun, as—-

Yo me lo reservo: I reserve it for myself.
Nosotros nos lo guardamos: We keep it for ourselves.
Se me dice: It is said to me (it says itself to me).
Se les venden las telas: The cloths are sold to them.
Nosotros nos le confiamos: We entrust ourselves to him.
Vosotros os les empeñasteis en £1,000: You pledged yourselves to them
for £1,000.

[Footnote 86: This tense is formed from the Past Def. by changing the termination ron of the 3rd pers. pl. into se, ses, se, semos, seis sen, in all the three conjugations.]

VOCABULARY.

=en la actualidad, al momento=, at present =á menudo=, often =acostumbrarse=, to accustom oneself =admitir=, to acknowledge =aparecer=, to appear =aplicarse=, to apply oneself =ayuda=, help =boletín=, form, slip, price list =caucho seco=, dry rubber =cebada y avena=, barley and oats =cifras=, figures =la compra=, the purchase =*contar (con)=, to count, to rely on =la costumbre=, custom =cualquiera=, any (affirm.) =cuidadosamente=, carefully =declararse en quiebra=, to file one's petition in bankruptcy =dedicarse=, to devote oneself =dirigirse=, to address oneself =escribirse=, to write to each other, to one another =escuchar=, to listen to =exacto=, exact, accurate =firmeza=, firmness =industria azucarera=, sugar industry =los informes=, information =lisonjearse=, to flatter oneself =llamarse=, to be called =el montaje=, the erection of machinery, etc. =*moverse=, to be moved, driven (machinery) =operadores=, dealers (on 'Change) =partida=, lot (of goods) =perfeccionar=, to perfect, improve (machinery) =*reconocer=, to acknowledge =recursos=, means = respetar=, to respect =sección=, section =tacharse=, to censure, to blame, oneself =tejidos=, textiles, cloths =últimamente=, lately =únicamente=, solely, only

EXERCISE 1 (19).

1. Nos dirigimos á Vs. por informes sobre la casa cuyo (whose) nombre aparece en el boletín adjunto.

10. Estos tornos y estas sierras mecánicas (these lathes and sawing machines) se mueven por motor eléctrico.

14. Se dice que llegaron grandes partidas de Cebada y Avena, ¿piensa V. que influirán en los precios?

16. Entonces resultará (or resultará pues) alguna ventaja para los consumidores (consumers).

17. No puedo tacharme de imprevidencia (want of foresight) por no haberme abastecido (supplied, stocked) á tiempo, pues (because) carecía de los recursos necesarios para hacerlo (to do so).

EXERCISE 2 (20).

1. I flatter myself that you will be pleased with (le gustarán) my purchases seeing (visto) the firmness of prices at present.

2. We consider ourselves lucky (dichosos de) not to have listened to their advice (consejo).

5. They declared themselves bankrupts (they filed their petition in bankruptcy).

11. We shall gratefully acknowledge (agradeceremos infinito) any help you may render (preste) to our friend.

13. The output (producto) for the first two months of the current year was 18,668 lbs. dry rubber.

14. The bill market (los cambios) was very firm to-day but there was little doing (poco se hizo).

15. Dealers were reluctant (se mostraron contrarios) to do business in the securities.

16. Rubber shares were lifeless (muy desanimadas), but prices were maintained (se mantuvieron).

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

A Possessive Adjective accompanies a noun; a Possessive pronoun stands for a noun.

EXAMPLES—

Mi embarque: My shipment.
Nuestro arreglo: Our arrangement.
Su sinceridad: His, her, or their sincerity.
Tu beneficio: Thy benefit.
Sus fondos: His funds, capital.

De él, de ella, de ellos, de V., etc., may be added for the sake of clearness, but are not needed when the sense is clear without them.[88]

In the 3rd person (but not in the 1st and 2nd) instead of "su … de él," "su … de V.," etc., we may say "el … de él," "el … de V.," etc.

[Footnote 88: "De V." is added also for politeness ("V." being a title in itself—your grace).]

El mío, la mía, los míos, las mías (mine).
El tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las tuyas (thine).
El suyo, la suya, los suyos, las suyas (his, hers, theirs, yours,
polite).
El nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las nuestras (ours).
El vuestro, la vuestra, los vuestros, las vuestras (yours familiar).

The Possessive Pronoun must be preceded by the definite article except when it follows the verb "to be" ("Ser") and ownership is asserted.

EXAMPLES—

V. ha acabado su trabajo, pero yo no he principiado el mío: You have finished your work, but I have not started mine.

Estos títulos y acciones son míos: These bonds and shares are mine (viz., belong to me).[89]

[Footnote 89: If the intention is only to distinguish between one object and another the article is maintained; as, Estas son mis acciones, aquellas son las de V. (these are my shares, those are yours).]

=Possessive Adjectives Emphatic=. If any emphasis is placed on the possessive adjectives, the forms of the possessive pronouns are used, following the noun, as—

Quiero la maleta mía y no la de su amigo: I want my portmanteau, not your friend's.

"A friend of mine," "a customer of yours" will be translated "un amigo de los míos," "un cliente de los suyos," or also "un amigo mío," "un cliente suyo," without the preposition de.

The Possessive Pronoun preceded by the neuter article =lo= denotes "property in general," as—

Lo mío (mine—that which is mine).
Lo nuestro (ours—that which belongs to us).
Lo suyo or lo propio (one's own property).
Lo ajeno (other people's property (that which belongs to others)).

Amigo mío: My friend.
Muy Señor mío (usual introduction to a Spanish letter).

But if the noun is qualified by an adjective, both "mi" and "mío" are used ("mi" is more general), as Mi querido amigo (my dear friend).

[Footnote 90: Used just the same as the 1st form; but it may also be used instead of the Conditional Mood.]

[Footnote 91: Refers to a future doubtful action; little used. Its place is generally supplied by the Present Subjunctive, and, after si (if), by the Present Indicative.]

VOCABULARY.

=*atenerse á= to adhere to =*adherir á= to adhere to =ajustar=, to adjust =apresurarse á=, to hasten to. =asegurar=, to secure =avería=, average (damage by sea-water, etc.) =buque=, ship =buque de vapor=, steamer =buque de vela=, sailing vessel =cabida=, room, space =codiciar=, to covet =deber=, to owe, must =debido á=, owing to =dirección=, address =encaminar=, to forward =hierro=, iron =mensual=, monthly =mercado de granos=, grain market =muestra=, sample =petición=, request =pormenores, detalles=, particulars, details =por tanto=, =por eso=, therefore =proporcionado=, =adecuado=, adequate =puerto=, port =relación=, report =representante=, representative =resto, restante=, remainder =resultado=, result =riesgo=, risk (=á= or =por) saldo=, (in) settlement =satisfecho=, satisfied =siguiente=, following =someter=, to submit =(la) sucursal=, branch house =surtido=, assortment, selection =vigas=, beams

EXERCISE 1 (21).

1. Su representante de V. me ha sometido sus (his) muestras y dentro de pocos días haré un surtido.

3. Sírvase V. consignar los géneros á la orden mía y no á la (orden) del Sr. Fulano, como lo hacía V. antes.

5. Les embarcaremos sus vigas de hierro por el próximo vapor y las (vigas) de su sucursal de Rosario con el buque siguiente.

11. Á nuestro parecer (in our opinion) su clientela de V. es mejor que la suya de él.

EXERCISE 2 (22).

1. We beg (tenemos el gusto de) to inform you that your order has been placed at your prices owing to the fall experienced (que tuvimos) in our market.

2. In our monthly report, which we beg to enclose, we have stated (consignado) the present position of our grain market.

4. Our risk would be great and therefore we must adhere to our request of an adequate commission.

5. The average having been adjusted we now hasten to enclose our cheque for £59 16s. 9d. in settlement of your claim as per statement enclosed.

6. Trusting (en la confianza que) you will be satisfied with (con or de) this result, we are, yours faithfully (somos de Vs. attos. y S.S.Q.B.S.M.[92]).

7. We have secured room for the remainder of your machinery in the steamer leaving (que saldrá de) our port on the 10th prox.

[Footnote 92: Atentos y seguros servidores (que besan sus manos). The words in brackets are not used in South America and some Spanish firms also omit them. Instead of q.b.s.m., Spaniards have lately adopted: q.e.s.m. (que estrechan sus manos).]

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

A demonstrative adjective accompanies a noun and a demonstrative pronoun stands for a noun.

[Footnote 93: Sometimes "estotro," "estotra," "esotro," "esotra," but these and other forms are obsolete.]

The difference between Ese and Aquel is not strictly observed. However, in cases like "this box," "that table," "that cupboard yonder," use ese for the nearer of the two removed from the speaker: "Esta caja," "esa mesa," "aquel armario."

Neuter form Esto, eso, aquello[94] (this, that). This has no plural and is used—

El mercado del algodón está muy abatido; esto me desanima: The cotton market is very flat; this disconcerts me.

2. In reference to something pointed at, without referring to what the thing is,[95] as—

Este, ese, aquel, etc., are accented when a stress is placed on them; Éste is also used for "the latter" and Aquél for "the former."[96]

Instead of ese, etc., aquel, etc., before que and de, the definite article is generally used, as—

El aumento de precio de hoy y el[97] que tuvimos ayer: The increase in price to-day and that we had yesterday.

La remesa anterior y la que haremos hoy: The previous shipment and that we are sending to-day.

Lo que (instead of "aquello que") escribo es la pura verdad: That which (what) I write is the honest truth.

[Footnote 97: It might appear to be an abbreviation of "aquel," but it is not] so.

¿Qué libro es ese? Es el en que escribimos ayer: What book is that? It is that in which we wrote yesterday.

¿Qué carta quiere V.? La á que me referí ayer: What letter do you want?
That to which I referred yesterday.

¿Qué plumas son estas? Son las con que yo escribía: What pens are these?
They are those with which I wrote.

Nos dicen los armadores que el cargamento llegará á esa el 15 del mes entrante: The shipowners inform us that the cargo will reach your town on the 15th prox.

VOCABULARY.

=á ese respecto=, in that respect =acusar=, to accuse, to show =al menos=, at least =barca á motor= motor-boat =barca automóvil= motor-boat =carriles, rieles, railes=, rails =competidor, contrincante=, competitor, neighbour[98] =condiciones=, terms =contra=, against =deprimir=, to depress =descarga=, discharge, the discharging =desgracia=, misfortune =días de estadía=, lay days =dificultad=, difficulty =elevar=, to raise, to enhance =está visto=, it is obvious =evitar=, to avoid =fletar=, to freight =mar alborotada=, heavy sea =mercado algodonero=, cotton market =mina de carbón=, colliery =*ofrecer=, to offer =oscilación=, uncertainty, wavering, ups and downs =perturbar=, to disturb =sorprendente=, surprising =suma redonda=, lump sum =*volcar=, to capsize, to overturn

EXERCISE 1 (23).

1. Debido á la última baja que se ha verificado en este mercado, podemos ofrecerles una reducción de diez por ciento en los precios de esos géneros.

2. Está visto que el gobierno de aquella república no sólo no se ocupa de elevar el crédito sino que tiene la desgracia de deprimirlo y de perturbar el mercado bursátil (the money market).

4. Los consolidados (the consolidated) han abierto á 82 y la Renta Italiana á 101, habiendo bajado más tarde aquéllos á 81 1/2 y ésta á 100.

6. La revista del mercado algodonero acusa una baja en los futures y la de la Bolsa un alza en todos los valores extranjeros.

EXERCISE 2 (24).

1. We shall ship these iron beams and those steel rails by a sailing vessel which we intend to (intentamos) freight at (por) a lump sum, with at least ten lay days for discharging.

3. A German motor-boat was making this week a trial run (excursión de prueba) in a (con la) heavy sea when she capsized (y se volcó).

6. Messrs. Brown & Co. of your city (de esa) have sent their agent over (aquí) to make considerable purchases.

7. We hastened to submit to them our best terms offering a credit of nine months against their acceptances.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Quien is used for persons only. El cual and que are used for persons and things.

EXAMPLES—

El agente á quien (or al cual) hemos escrito: The agent to whom we have written.

¿Son aquéllas las partidas de azúcares de las cuales me habló V. ayer?
Are those the lots of sugar of which you spoke to me yesterday?

Me acuerdo de las personas y las cosas que V. ha mencionado: I remember the people and things that you mentioned.

El comerciante á cuyo hijo hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

Que is used very often instead of quien and el cual. Que is to be preferred when the clause following is a mere complement of the principal clause (preceding), and Quien or El cual only when the following clause is considered not less in importance than the clause preceding, viz., when it introduces _a new idea,[99] as—

¿Ha visto V. al viajante que nos visitó esta mañana?
Have you seen the traveller who called on us this morning?

He conocido al banquero quien era hombre muy juicioso y prudente: I knew the banker who was a very wise and prudent man.

[Footnote 99: This is practically saying: after a comma, only the use of the comma is so arbitrary that we preferred to explain the rule fully.]

After a preposition translate "whom" by quien (pl., quienes)[100], and "which" by el cual (la cual, etc.).

EXCEPTION—

After á, con, de, en, we can also translate "which" equally well by que, or el que, la que, los que, las que.[101]

[Footnote 101: "Que" or "El que" is found also after other prepositions but rarely.]

"Which" relating to a whole sentence is lo cual or lo que (naturally, because a whole sentence has no gender).

El buque, la tripulación del cual, de que, or del que ha desembarcado:
The ship whose crew has landed.

El comerciante al hijo de quien, or del cual hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

Expressions as "The man I spoke to" must, of course, be rendered "The man to whom I spoke" (El hombre á quien hablé).

Expressions as "I recommend you Messrs. So-and-So than which no better firm exists," are rendered "Le recomiendo á V. la casa de los Srs. Fulanos de Tal que no la hay mejor (or de la cual, or de la que no hay otra mejor)".

VOCABULARY.

=amargo=, bitter =armador de buques=, shipowner =arreglar=, to arrange =el bien=, the good =buque, barco, navio=, boat =cauto=, cautious =*conocer=, to know through the senses, to be acquainted with =deuda=, debt =doloroso=, painful =endosar=, to endorse =enseñar=, to teach, to show =esperar=, to expect, to hope, to wait =estadísticas=, statistics =falta=, want, absence of =flojo=, slack =fundar=, to found =gratitud=, gratitude =*hacer mención=, to mention =herida=, wound, sting =informar (de)=, to inform of, to acquaint with =llevar chasco=, to be disappointed, to be baffled =*negar=, to deny =periódico=, newspaper =premio=, reward, prize, premium =robar=, to rob, to steal =simpático=, pleasant, winsome, taking =*tener empeño=, to be earnest, anxious about anything

EXERCISE 1 (25).

5. He arreglado con el negociante quien (or el cual) parece hombre muy simpático.

6. El corredor, quien (or el cual) tiene mucho empeño en concluir la transacción, me vino á ver otra vez (again) esta mañana.

7. El capital, el cual se ha destinado á la explotación de las minas, es intangible (cannot be touched).

9. El negociante de quien (or del cual) le hablaba es integérrimo (most upright).

EXERCISE 2 (26).

1. He who robs you of (roba) money robs you of little, but he who denies you a debt of well-deserved gratitude robs you of more, which is obvious.

2. Those who deny this (nieguen, (subj.)) have not experienced how (cuán) painful is the sting of ingratitude.

3. Those who do good should do it expecting ingratitude for (por) their reward, then they will not be disappointed.

9. Their market is very slack at present, which accounts for (explica) the want of their remittances.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

These are the same as the relative pronouns, only they are written with an accent—

¿Quién,-es? (who, whom?)
¿Cuál,-es? (which?)
¿Qué? (what?)
¿Cúyo,-a,-os,-as? (whose?)
¿De quién,-es[103]? (whose?)
¿Cuánto,-a,-os,-as? (how much, how many?)

Cuál when interrogative is used without the definite article which must accompany it when it is a relative pronoun. Quién, interrogative, is never an adjective.

EXAMPLES—

¿Cúyo es este lápiz? Whose is this pencil? or Whose
¿Cúyo lápiz es este? pencil is this?
¿De quién es este lápiz?

¿De quién recibió V. la consignación de madera? From whom did you receive the consignment of timber?

¿A quiénes nos refieren Vs. para informes? To whom do you refer us for information?

[Footnote 104: Before an adjective without a noun following "qué" translates the English "how":—¡Qué bonito! how nice!]

¡Qué paño tan bonito! What a very nice suiting!
¡Qué hombre más rico! What a very rich man!

¡Cuál le han reducido las desgracias! How (or to what a state) misfortunes have reduced him! ¡Cuál la ví! How (or in what a state) did I see her!

Such expressions as "He wrote me a letter, which letter I still possess," are translated "Me escribió una carta, cuya carta aun tengo."

[Footnote 105: The Imperative Mood has only a separate form for the 2nd pers. sing. and plu. It has no 1st pers. sing. and the 1st pers. pl. and 3rd pers. sing. and pl. are taken from the Pres. Subj.

The 2nd pers. pl. is derived from the Infinitive Mood by changing the final r into d—no exception.

The 2nd pers. sing. is the same as the 3rd pers. sing. of the Pres.
Indicative, with a few exceptions (among which are Haber, Tener, Ser).]

[Footnote 106: Given as a form only, as Haber has no Imperative Mood in modern Spanish, except in Héme, héte, héle, aquí, etc. (here I am, here thou art, here he is, etc.), and in some other rare cases.

N.B.—In Spanish there is no imperative negative, the Pres. Subj. negative being used instead, as—

VOCABULARY.

=*acordarse=, to remember =me acuerdo=, I remember =se acuerda=, he remembers =cartera=, pocket-book, portfolio =contestar á, responder á=, to answer =*decir=, to say =*devolver=, to return, give back =devuelto=, given back =devuelvo=, I return, give back =digo=, I say =dice=, he says =dije=, I said =dijo=, he said =disgustado=, annoyed, disgusted, displeased =flojedad=, slackness =*hacer escala=, to call at (steamers) =mucho me gusta=, I am very glad =negativa=, refusal =notas (billetes) de banco=, bank notes =*oir=, to hear =*perder=, to lose =perdiendo=, losing =*querer=, to want, to be willing to have =quiero=, I want, I am willing to have =quiere=, he wants, he is willing to have =responder=,[107] to answer =*seguir=, to continue =sorpresa=, surprise

EXERCISE 1 (27).

13. Es la cartera de mi hermano, cuya cartera, como V. habrá sabido, la perdió con £500 en notas de banco y le fué devuelta.

EXERCISE 2 (28).

10. If we bought (si comprásemos) the (colonial) produce dearer than the figure you indicated we should have to answer for it (seríamos responsables).

11. The cotton prints and union drills we sent you will answer your requirements (corresponderán a sus necesidades).

INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

Alguno, *alguien (pronounced álguien), (some, somebody, anybody)
*Algo, alguna cosa (something, anything)
*Uno-a,-os-as (one, a person, some, some persons)
Uno á otro (one another, each other)
Uno ú otro (one or the other, either)
Uno y otro, ambos, entrambos (both)
Ni uno ni otro (neither the one nor the other)
Ni uno (not a single one)
Los otros, los demás (the others)
Mismo (same, self)
Cierto-a,-os-as (a certain, certain)
Cada (each)
*Cada uno, *cada cual (each, each one)
Otro (other, another[108])
Todo (all, everything, every)
Todos (everybody, all)
Poco (little)
Pocos (few)
Unos pocos, unos cuantos (a few)
Mucho-a,-os-as (much, many)
Varios (several)
Cualquiera (sing.), Cualesquiera (pl.), (any, whichever)
*Quienquiera (sing.), quienesquiera (pl.), (any, whoever, whomever)
*Cualquiera cosa (anything, whatever)
Propio-a, os-as (own, self, same)
Tal (sing.), tales (pl. such a, such)
*Fulano, zutano, mengano (So-and-So)
Cuanto (todo lo que), (all that which)
Cuantos (todos los que), (all those who)
Ninguno (no one, nobody, not any)
*Nada (nothing), *nadie (no one, nobody)
*Quien … quien, *cual … cual (some … some)

Cada huelga de obreros daña la industria nacional: Each workmen's strike injures national industry.

Alguien, algo, cada, nada, nadie are invariable, and the verb accompanying them is always singular, as—

Algo es mejor que el dinero, el honor: There is something better than money, honour.

Nada es absolutamente perfecto y nadie es infalible: Nothing is absolutely perfect and nobody is infallible.

Alguien refers to persons only, and cannot be followed by de. Alguno to persons or things, and may be followed by de,[109] as—

Quiere naranjas y melocotones y yo tengo algunos: He wants oranges and peaches, and I have some.

The English "any," "anything," are translated by alguno, alguna cosa (algo) when interrogative; ninguno, ninguna cosa (nada) when negative; and cualquiera, cualquiera cosa when affirmative, as—

¿Quiere V. algún refresco ó algo que comer? Do you want any refreshments[110] or anything to eat?

Cualquier(a) muchacho de escuela echaría de ver que estas Batistas
Victoria son más ordinarias: Any schoolboy could see that these Victoria
Lawns are of lower quality.

¿Comprará V. (algunos) títulos de la nueva emisión? Will you buy any stock of the new issue?

When nadie and ninguno, or any other =negative word=, as the adverb nunca (never), etc., precede a verb, no other negative is required; but when they =follow= it, =no= (not) must precede the verb, as: No he visto á nadie or á nadie he visto: I have seen nobody.

[Footnote 110: In Spanish the singular is found instead of the plural, as: ¿Tiene V. algún libro que prestarme? (have you any books to lend me?).]

Verbs ending in car or gar change the c and g into =qu= and =gu= respectively before =e=, as—

[Footnote 111: The primary parts (except, of course, the Infinitive) will be omitted in future when they are regular. The derivative parts will also be omitted when they are regularly formed from their primary parts according to the rules given. See synopsis at the end of the book.]

VOCABULARY.

=agricola=, agricultural =amontonar=, to pile up =apertura=, opening =bajar=, to lower, to go or come down =bonito=, pretty =comarca=, region, district (of a country) =detenidamente=, at length =duplicar=, to double, to duplicate =exigua=, slight, trifling =fábricas de algodón=, cotton mills =géneros alimenticios=, food stuffs =*hacer caso=, to take notice =hilador=, spinner =impuesto=, tax =(la) incertidumbre=, uncertainty =industria=, industry =legislatura=, parliamentary session =ligero=, light (adj.), slight, small =limitación=, curtailment =(la) luz=, light (n.) =*mantener=, to hold up, to maintain =mejora=, improvement =ministerio=, ministry =obligaciones=, debentures =olvidar=, to forget =para que=, so that =patria=, country, fatherland =preferible=, preferable =*prevalecer, reinar=, to prevail, to rule =subir=, to go or come up =tejedor=, weaver =timbre=, stamp =tomar la delantera á=, to take the start on. =trigo=, wheat =varios=, several =vinícola=, wine (adj.)

EXERCISE 1 (29).

1. Alguien pretende que se duplicará el impuesto del timbre sobre las acciones y obligaciones de las compañías anónimas y que habrá algunos que protestarán enérgicamente.

2. Algo hay de eso y uno y otro partido político se interesan de la cuestión pero ni uno de los periódicos locales echa luz sobre las intenciones del ministerio.

3. Los demás proyectos de ley con ciertas modificaciones se presentarán (will be introduced) en esta misma legislatura, y cada uno se discutirá detenidamente.

5. Cuanto se hace es poco cuando se piensa en lo que se debería hacer para que nuestros competidores no nos tomen la delantera.

7. Cuantos hay que miran al verdadero interés de su patria deben olvidar sus propios intereses en favor del fomento de la industria vinícola y agrícola de esta comarca.

10. Negocio papel extranjero, pero sólo letras bancarias, ó de firmas de primera clase y con dos endosos, nada más.

EXERCISE 2 (30).

2. Some wheat buyers take little notice of the higher American cable advices (las subidas que se han telegrafiado desde América).

8. Anybody who has his own interests at heart will contribute to the realisation of the scheme.

9. I did all I could (podía) so that nothing should be lost (no se perdiera nada).

10. Some say the market will go up, some say it will go down, and such is the position that one does not know (no sabe) what to do.

13. Mail advices (los anuncios por la mala) from America report an abnormal (anormal) curtailment of production in the United States Cotton Mills.

14. They cannot take the risk of piling up stocks when the demand is so slight (exigua).

15. Foreign Bourses.—Berlin. A weak tone ruled at the opening. During the later dealings (operaciones posteriores) a slight (ligera) improvement was noticeable (se observó).

THE VERB.

The verb is a word by which we affirm something. It is the essential word in a sentence: without it (expressed or understood) no sentence can be construed.

Haber is a true auxiliary because it helps to form compound tenses[112] but it presents the following peculiarities—

1. It is used as an impersonal verb (as well as the verb hacer which is given here for the sake of completeness) for expressions of time, as—

Dos años ha (or ha dos años) or hace dos años la exportación de los Caldos españoles estaba muy floreciente: Two years ago the exportation of Spanish wines and oils was very flourishing.

Ha dos años (or hace dos años) que la casa Guillermo Fernandez y Cía está establecida en La Coruña como Comisionistas: The firm, G.F. & Co., has been established in Corunna as Commission Agents these last two years.

¿Cuanto tiempo ha (or hace) que estudia V. el castellano? How long have you been studying Spanish?

Hay mucha pimienta, clavos, y canela en el mercado de Londres: There are much pepper, cloves, and cinnamon in the London market.

Sí, hubo muchas especias el año pasado también: Yes, there were many spices last year also.

Cuando estaba en El Cairo había miedo de que estallara algún motín: When
I was in Cairo there was the fear of some riots breaking out.

In English we have "there is" and "there are," because "there to be" is not used impersonally, the meaning being, e.g., "a man is there"; "two men are there." In Spanish, however, haber is used impersonally and both "there is a man" and "there are two men" are translated "Hay un hombre," "Hay dos hombres."

It will be noticed that Haber used for "there to be" makes Hay instead of Ha for the present indicative. All its other tenses remain unchanged: había, hubo, habrá, habría, etc.

Hay que followed by an Infinitive (French "il faut"), it is necessary to …, as—

Hay que tener mucho cuidado: It is necessary to be very careful. I, you, etc., must be very careful.

Tener is generally a =principal= (viz., not an auxiliary) verb, used to denote possession; but it is used sometimes as an =auxiliary= instead of haber, as—

Tengo recibido su catálogo ilustrado y lista (or boletín) de precios: I have received your illustrated catalogue with price list.

Tenemos recibida[113] su apreciable carta de 20 del que rige (or del corriente): We have received your favour of the 20th inst.

Los presupuestos, que tenemos recibidos del Trapiche para nuestro
Ingenio de la Habana: The estimates which we have received for the Sugar
Mill for our Factory in Havana.

In all the preceding examples tener used instead of haber introduces an additional idea of "=possession=".

"He recibido su carta" might be followed, in Spanish, by "pero la he perdido" (but I have lost it). "Tengo recibida su carta" implies that the receiver holds it now.

[Footnote 113: The Past Part. following "tener" agrees in gender and number with the direct object.]

¿Qué me dice V.? tengo leído ese proyecto de Ley: What are you talking about? I have read that (Parliamentary) Bill.

Colloquially the people will use tener for haber without any allusion to possession, but this should be avoided.

VOCABULARY.

=anteayer=, the day before yesterday =apresurar=, to hasten, to urge (a.) =apresurarse=, to hasten (n.) =apresurarse con sus órdenes=, to rush one's orders =árbol de eje=, axle shaft =cámara de comercio=, chamber of commerce =cigüeña, árbol de cigüeña, cigüeñal=, crank-shaft =compañía de ferrocarril=, railway company =con manchas=, (designs)—spot =con puntitas, con bolitas=, (designs) spot =contestar=, to answer, to reply =cuadritos=, (designs) checks =cuenta simulada=, pro forma account =culpa=, blame, fault =daño=, damage, injury, breakdown =de buena tinta=, from a good source =derecho=, right =duda=, doubt =equivocarse=, to be mistaken =existencias=, stocks of goods =expedidor=, sender =fecha de=, dated =listados=, (designs) striped =á listas, á rayas=, (designs) striped =malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent =mundial=, world (adj.) =próximamente=, about, approximately =pues=, well =redactar=, to write out =repentinamente=, suddenly =representación exclusiva=, sole agency =responsabilidad=, responsibility =retardar=, to delay, to be delayed =*romperse=, to break (n.) =roto=, broken =todavía=, yet =vivir=, to live, to reside =ya=, already

EXERCISE 1 (31).

1. En la Asociación de Agricultores de España (Society of Spanish Agriculturists) dará mañana viernes á las seis y media de la tarde una conferencia (lecture) el ilustrado Sr. Fulano.

8. La Cámara de Comercio de Londres votó, después de larga discusión, una protesta contra el nuevo Tratado de Comercio con Cuba y redactó una petición que será dirigida al gobierno.

9. El vapor inglés "Raleigh" que sale para Montevideo ha recibido un marconigrama anunciando que reina allí el malcontento político.

10. El aviador acaba de batir el "record" mundial de velocidad y distancia recorriendo (covering) ciento veintidós kilómetros en hora y media, á saber (namely) próximamente 80 kilómetros por hora.

11. No se equivoca V. en la interpretación de lo que hemos escrito acerca de las facturas simuladas.

EXERCISE 2 (32).

4. Two weeks ago prices were so high that buyers were rushing their orders; now they have suddenly fallen to an unprecedented level (nivel sin precedente).

5. He has examined the samples and found that the designs of the light grounds (fondos claros) are not as ordered.

7. The spot muslins have been delayed owing to a breakdown in the works (la fábrica).

8. The senders are trying to throw the blame on (á) the Railway Company, but we have no right of claim (derecho de reclamar) against the latter (ésta); it is they who (son ellos quienes) must indemnify us for the loss.

9. It is a well-founded (bien establecida) and respectable firm and they will not deny their responsibility—there is no doubt about (de) that.

13. Our friends have large stocks but they say the market is looking up (mejorando).

"SER" AND "ESTAR."

The difficulty in the employment of ser and estar is, by some, unduly magnified. Others give the following rule—

This rule should not be adopted because often it would not apply, as the following two examples will show—

Él es soldado porque se ha alistado por dos años: He is a soldier as he has enlisted for two years.

Aquellos montes están eternamente cubiertos de nieve: Those mountains are perpetually covered with snow.

The following simple and true rules will enable the student to understand the difference between ser and estar and to apply them correctly.

La carta fué traída[114] por el cartero—Passive[115]: The letter was brought by the postman.

[Footnote 114: The Past Part. following "Ser" and "Estar" agrees in gender and number with the subject of these verbs.]

[Footnote 115: Este cuarto es barrido todos los días (this room is swept every day) is passive voice, because we speak of the action of sweeping, viz., somebody sweeps the room every day. Este cuarto está barrido—no voice; "barrido" is used as an adjective to denote state or condition.]

[Footnote 116: Inherence = a fixed state of being in another body. A quality may be inherent "for the time being," as: Juan se ha alistado por dos años, entonces es soldado: John has enlisted for two years, then he is a soldier.]

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

[Footnote 117: These are not, strictly speaking, "inherent qualities," but they are spoken of as such.]

Está activando sus esfuerzos: He is making still further efforts.
Estamos extendiendo nuestras relaciones: We are extending our connection.

Verbs ending in cer, cir, ger and gir change the c into =z= and the g into =j= before a or o as—

Verbs ending in guir and quir change the gu into =g= and the qu into =c= before a or o, as—

VOCABULARY.

=acabar de=, to have just =accesorio=, accessory =activo y pasivo=, assets and liabilities =antiguo=, old, ancient =avería=, particular, particular average =balance=, balance, balance sheet =bastar=, to suffice, to be enough =biela=, connecting rod =caldera=, boiler =cilindros=, cylinders =citar=, to quote, to mention a passage =*convenir=, to agree, to suit =cotizar=, to quote prices =cuenta de ganancias y pérdidas=, profit and loss account =dejar=, to leave, to let =disposición (á su)=, (at your) disposal =durar=, to last =el engranaje=, the gearing =entregar=, to deliver =equipo=, equipment =es decir, ó sea= viz., namely =á saber= viz., namely =franco de porte=, carriage paid =grifo=, cock (machinery) =hasta la fecha=, (made up) to date =huelga=, strike =imprevisto=, unforseen =á la izquierda=, to the left =llegar á ser=, to become, to contrive to be =*mantenerse=, to be maintained =máquina=, machine, engine =mercerizar=, to mercerize =para con=, towards =transporte seguido=, carriage forward =porte pagadero al destino=, carriage forward =presentar=, to present =proveer=, to provide =provisto (proveído)=, provided =semejante=, similar =*sentir=, to be sorry, to feel =sin embargo=, however =soportes, coginetes=, bearings =tornillos=, screws =transporte pagado=, carriage paid =tubos=, tubes =válvula=, valve =el volante=, the fly-wheel =y pico= (=veinte y pico=, etc.), odd, (twenty odd, etc.)

EXERCISE 1 (33).

1. La marca (the make) de estas máquinas y calderas es una de las más antiguas.

3. Están aquí para su inspección y están todas provistas de sus accesorios: cilindros, volantes, bielas, soportes, engranajes, válvulas y tornillos.

6. Es cierto sin embargo que las inglesas son mejores y que están en primera línea en la industria mundial.

7. Los Srs. Fulano y Cía. han llegado á ser los primeros entre los constructores que han comprendido que se podían entregar máquinas excelentes á un precio relativamente bajo.

8. Para no citar más que un ejemplo de la importancia de esta casa basta decir que son suyas las 1,000 máquinas y pico que se han exportado últimamente para Italia y la Argentina.

10. Son fabricantes ricos y al mismo tiempo generosos para con los que son pobres é infelices.

11. Compraré diez fardos de Estampados Mercerizados si me los deja V. á 5-3/16 d. por yarda.

EXERCISE 2 (34).

1. We have just received your Price List, but we are sorry to say your prices are too dear.

3. Every engine is sent out with its complete equipment, viz., tubes, valves, cocks, etc.

4. The Directors are preparing a balance sheet to be laid before (para presentar á) the company at the next ordinary general meeting.

5. It will show the assets and liabilities and a profit and loss account made up to date.

7. It is your action which has done us more harm (daño) than anything else (cualquier otra cosa[120]).

11. The demand for steel, iron and copper was very steady (firme) but it is probable that it will not last.

13. Our quotations will be maintained except in case of strikes or other unforeseen circumstances.

14. The four bales of linens will be delivered to you carriage paid, but the boilers and (y sus) accessories you will receive (los recibirán) carriage forward.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

A verb is Transitive when its action passes from the subject of the action to the object.

=1. Active= (when the subject of the verb stands for the doer or agent of the action), as—

=2. Passive= (when the subject of the verb stands for the real object of the action, viz., when it suffers the action instead of doing it), as—

Los ofrecimientos de sus servicios nos fueron renovados en su último escrito: His offers of services were renewed to us in his last letter.

The Passive voice in Spanish is formed with the verb ser as above, or by using the =active voice= with the pronoun se, as—

Active verbs become reflexive when their subject and object are the same person or thing, as—

Nos lisonjeamos poderlos servir por lo mejor de sus intereses: We flatter ourselves that we can serve them to the best of their interests.

"Uno á otro" and "los unos á los otros" may be added for greater clearness, as—

Procuramos convencernos (á nosotros mismos). We try to convince ourselves (each other).

Procuramos convencernos (el uno al otro). We try to convince ourselves (each other).

The direct object of a transitive verb,[121] if a proper name of a person or place, must be preceded by á, as—

Vimos al Señor Guillermo: We saw Mr. William.
Visitamos á Francia[122]: We visited France.

[Footnote 122: But not geographical names preceded by the article, as:
Avistamos La Habana (we sighted Havana).]

[Footnote 123: This part of the rule is not very strict, as we find it sometimes omitted before persons, and at others used before names of things, as: El hecho precedió á la palabra (the action preceded the word).]

But á should be avoided whenever it would engender confusion, or when the verb governs an accusative and a dative at the same time, as—

Recomendamos el Sr. Pérez á nuestro fabricante: We recommend Mr. Pérez to our manufacturer.

Á is also omitted when the noun following it does not refer to a particular individual, but to =any= individual of a certain class, as—

Juan no quiere socios en su empresa: John does not want any partners in his undertaking.

Verbs in whose conjugations i should come =unstressed= between two vowels change the unstressed i into =y=, as—

+—————————————————+ | =Creer= (to believe). | +—————————————————+ |Pres. Part., Creyendo. | |Past Def., Creyó … creyeron.| +—————————————————+

But the Imperf. Indic.: creía, creías, creía, creíamos, creíais, creían.

Verbs ending in zar change the z into =c= before =e= (because, with very few exceptions, z is not used in modern Spanish before e or i), as—

+————————————————————————————-+ | =Gozar= (to enjoy). | +————————————————————————————-+ |Pres. Subj., Goce, goces, goce, gocemos, gocéis, gocen.| |Past. Def., Gocé … | +————————————————————————————-+

VOCABULARY.

=abedul=, birch =abeto=, fir =adjunto=, herewith =agradable=, agreeable, pleasant =arpillera=, bagging =asegurar=, to insure =atribuir=, to attribute =el billar=, billiards =bola=, ball =calzado=, footwear =camas, armazones de cama=, bedsteads =carne seca=, jerked beef =chalecos=, vests =consignación=, consignment =correas=, belts, belting (machinery) =corresponsal=, correspondent =egoísta=, selfish =encaminar=, to forward =entrar en el dique=, to dock (ships) =fresno=, ash =garbanzos=, Spanish or chick peas =á grande velocidad=, by passenger train =guisantes=, green peas =habas=, broad beans =haya=, beech =hortalizas=, green vegetables =instruir=, to instruct =judías=, French beans =latón=, brass =la leche=, the milk =loza=, crockery =á pequeña velocidad=, by slow train =pino=, pine =plomo=, lead =porcelana=, china =productos químicos=, chemicals =roble, encina=, oak =rotura=, breakage =semestre=, half-year =suprimir=, to suppress, to leave out =tacos=, billiard-cues =el viaje=, the journey =zinc=, zinc

EXERCISE 1 (35).

1. Estimamos en mucho á nuestros corresponsales y los servimos de la mejor manera posible.

2. Comunica el capitán del vapor "Ríos" que el jueves, al medio día, se hallaba á seiscientas millas de Veracruz, sin novedad (all well).

3. Hoy publica la Gaceta dos cuadros estadísticos (statistical tables) formados por la Dirección general (Board) del Instituto Geográfico y Estadístico, que expresan el movimiento de pasajeros por mar habido en nuestro puerto durante el semestre pasado, y por los cuales se viene en conocimiento (we can see) de la emigración é inmigración española.

4. Desde el día 1° de Enero próximo satisfará (will pay) el calzado extranjero 10% más de derecho de importación.

5. Una comisión de Agricultores de Valencia visitó ayer tarde (yesterday evening) al Presidente del Consejo (the Premier) para pedirle que se suprima el impuesto sobre el transporte de hortalizas que establece la nueva ley.

6. Tiñendo estas telas con anilina se aumenta el coste de seis céntimos por metro.

9. Ellos creyeron lo que les dijimos (we said to them) y ya no nos atribuyen intenciones egoístas.

10. El Sr. Moreno sale para un viaje de negocios y visitará á Santo Domingo y la Habana.

[Footnote 125: "To boil" is generally hervir. Bullir is given as an example of the conjugation.]

EXERCISE 2 (36).

1. Kindly see Mr. Marino and inform him that we shall soon send him a consignment of timber, consisting of ash, beech, birch, fir, pine and oak.

2. We shall instruct our correspondent at Bilbao to forward to Vitoria the brass, lead, tin (estaño), and zinc he holds (tiene) at our disposal.

3. By the boat (steamer) leaving (que sale) this week, we shall ship to your consignment the bagging, belting, and bedsteads.

4. The "María" docked yesterday with a cargo of broad beans, French beans, green peas, and Spanish or chick peas.

5. She also brings a parcel of jerked beef and canned tongues (lenguas en latas).

8. We flatter ourselves that we shall shortly be able to write to each other pleasanter letters.

9. We have insured the china and crockery free of particular average (franco de), but we insured them against breakage at a (al) premium of 4%.

10. Herewith please find claim (reclamo) for loss through (por) damage in your last shipment of clocks and watches.

11. Please send by slow train the coats, vests, and trousers and, by passenger train, the remainder of the articles.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

Intransitive verbs express a state, as "to live," "to sleep," or an action that does not go beyond the doer, as "to go," "to walk."

The Spanish language abounds in Intransitive Pronominal verbs, i.e., verbs conjugated, same as the reflexive verbs, with a double pronoun =of the same person= all through, as—

Pres. Indic., Yo me quejo, tú te quejas, él se queja, nosotros nos quejamos, vosotros os quejáis, ellos se quejan.

These, of course, must not be confused with the Reflexive verbs. In the reflexive verb, we have an action that passes from the doer and falls on the doer itself, as—

[Footnote 126: Some of these verbs may be also Transitive verbs with a modified meaning, as: Alegrar (to gladden), Maravillar (to surprise), Proponer (to propose). Here the pronominal form marks the difference between Transitive and Intransitive.]

2. A few which, when used pronominally, have their meaning intensified or more or less modified, as—

3. Many which may be used pronominally or otherwise without any appreciable or definable modification of meaning, as—

Estar, estarse (to be)
Quedar, quedarse (to remain)
Casar (con), casarse (con), (to marry)
Pensar, pensarse (to think)
Yo pienso, or me pienso que sí (I think so)
Me escapó de la memoria or (it escaped my memory).
Se me escapó de la memoria (it escaped my memory).

In the case of this third kind, students should not indulge freely in the pronominal form, but should wait until they see it in the reading of good books, because, although the meaning is practically the same in all cases, still there are "finesses" of shade which practice alone can teach.

We shall give only those Primary Tenses which are irregular and the
Derivative Tenses when they are not formed regularly from the Primary
Tenses from which they are derived[127]—

VOCABULARY.

=agitarse=, to agitate (n.) =algo=, something, anything (interrog.) =amenaza=, threat =anticipación=, anticipation =anticipar=, to anticipate =anticipo=, advance =arduo=, arduous, difficult =baja=, decline =bajo cubierta=, underdeck =botones=, buttons =callar=, to be silent, to abstain from saying =camaradas=, comrades =cepillo=, brush =cinta=, ribbon =cortarse=, to cut oneself, to stop short =damascos=, damasks =definitivo=, definite =descuidar=, to neglect =ejecutar=, to execute =encaje de cortinas=, curtain lace =espantarse=, to be frightened =estiva=, stowage =*imponer=, to impose =impuesto=, imposed =lienzo adamascado=, diaper =pasas=, raisins =patronos=, masters, employers of workmen =prisa=, haste, hurry =*producir=, to produce =produje=, I produced =produjeron=, they produced =razón= (=á razón de=), at the rate of =reglamento=, regulations =sobre cubierta=, on deck =sobre estadías=, demurrage =sobrecargarse=, to overload oneself =tonelada=, ton =*traer=, to bring, to carry =traje=, I brought, I carried =tranquilo=, quiet =uvas=, grapes =vista= (=á la=), at sight

EXERCISE 1 (37).

2. No se avergüenzan de decir que se arrepienten de no haber declarado la huelga hace quince días y se alegran que sus camaradas en Francia se agitan por el día de trabajo de ocho horas.

6. Se ríe de mí sin duda porque no me espanto por sus amenazas, pero yo sé bien lo que me hago (what I do) y V. no sabe lo que se dice.

9. Quédese V. aquí, estése tranquilo y no piense á nada, su primo se acuerda con V., me pienso verle esta tarde, y tal vez llegaremos á un acuerdo común y definitivo.

10. No deseo que piense V. que descuido la ejecución de sus órdenes á la mayor brevedad (as soon as possible).

12. Después de haber principiado á hablar muy bien se cortó y no pudo hallar palabras para continuar.

EXERCISE 2 (38).

3. We overloaded ourselves with stocks in anticipation (en la esperanza) of large orders.

5. Thanking you in anticipation (anticipando las gracias, or agradeciéndoles de antemano) we remain.

10. The sailing vessel (velero) carried 800 tons of grapes and raisins, 600 under and 200 on deck.

11. She used 5 lay days in loading (la carga), having therefore 3 days left (quedándole), so that (así que) we do not think we shall have to pay demurrage.

15. I send you several patterns of curtain-lace, damasks, diapers, ribbons, buttons, and brushes.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

Impersonal verbs are those which are only conjugated in the 3rd pers. sing, of all the tenses.[129]

[Footnote 129: They are so called because they have no person or thing as their subject.]

Llover-llueve (to rain, it rains)
Granizar (to hail)
Helar-hiela (to freeze, it freezes)
Lloviznar (to drizzle)
Nevar-nieva (to snow, it snows)
Relampaguear (to lighten)
Tronar-truena (to thunder, it thunders)
Alborear (to dawn)
Amanecer (to dawn)
Anochecer (to grow dark)

The subject (generally understood) of Impersonal verbs is ello. Sometimes we find the words Dios or el día expressed as subjects, as—

Amanecimos en Madrid y anochecimos en Guadalajara: We were in Madrid at daybreak and at nightfall in Guadalajara.

Tú anocheciste bueno y amaneciste malo: You passed the night well, but you had a bad morning.

Bastar (to suffice).
Convenir (to suit).
Parecer (to appear).
Faltar[130] (to be wanting).
Hacer falta (to be wanted).
Suceder[131] (to happen).

EXAMPLES—

No parece justo que se aprovechen de este modo: It does not seem right that they should take advantage in this way.

Sucedió que se declaró en quiebra: It happened that he filed his petition in bankruptcy.

Me bastan diez libras: £10 are enough for me.
Me parecen justas sus razones: His reasons seem to me to be right.
Le sucedieron muchas desgracias: Many misfortunes happened to him.

the verb is =personal=, and this accounts for its being in the plural. In "me bastan diez libras," "diez libras" is the subject.

Of Haber and Hacer as impersonal verbs, we have treated in Lesson
VIII and Lesson XVI.

We add here that Hacer is used impersonally before certain nouns to denote the state of the weather or of the temperature, as—

Hace calor, frío, lluvia, viento, sol, etc.: It is warm, cold, rainy, windy, sunny, etc.

Expressions like "¿Qué se dirá?" or "¿qué dirán?" (What will people say?) may also be called impersonal uses of the verb.

[Footnote 132: Only 6 verbs in Spanish do not end in o in the 1st pers. sing., pres. indic., viz., Doy (I give), Soy (I am), Estoy (I am), Voy (I see), He (I have), Sé (I know).]

VOCABULARY.

=algo=, somewhat =asunto=, matter =calor=, heat =carranclanes, guingas=, ginghams =cerrar el trato=, to conclude the bargain =cheques=, cheques =circular=, to circulate, to go round =cobrar=, to collect (money) =comprometer=, to compromise =costa=, coast =cuesta=, slope =cuidar=, to take care =cuidarse=, to take care of oneself =decididamente=, decidedly =decidir=, to decide =después=, afterwards =drogas=, drysalteries =durante=, during =faltar, hacer falta=, to be wanting, to be wanted =el fin=, the end =fustanes=, fustians =gasa=, gauze =gastos=, expenditure =ingresos netos=, net revenue =jamón=, ham =letras=, bills of exchange =maíz=, maize =malbaratar=, to undersell =mantas con franjas=, fringed blankets =mercería=, haberdashery =paseo=, promenade, walk, stroll =puerto=, port, harbour =recursos=, means =*reducir=, to reduce =reduje=, etc., I reduced, etc. =reduzco, reduces=, etc., I reduce, etc. =*seguir=, to follow, to continue =sigo, sigues=, etc., I follow, etc. =el temporal=, the storm =*valer más=, to be preferable =vencer=, to fall due =vidriado=, glassware

EXERCISE 1 (39).

3. Anocheció cuando aun no habíamos llegado, pero como hacía luna el paseo siguió siendo (continued to be) agradable.

4. Ayer llovió, granizó, nevó y lloviznó sucesivamente todo el santo día (the livelong day).

5. Me parece que no le conviene de cerrar el trato con el banco bajo estas condiciones.

6. Me hace falta dinero pues es menester (it is necessary) proporcionarme (to get) el importe que me falta para completar las £1,000 que vencen el 15 del corriente.

7. Más vale aceptar las condiciones del banco que tener que malbaratar los géneros.

8. Ande V. con cuidado (be careful) no sea (lest) que vaya V. á comprometer su crédito.

9. Reina por estas costas muy violento temporal á cuya consecuencia ha resultado el vapor "Juan" con el árbol de la hélice (shaft of the screw) roto, por lo cual hubo de ser traído á remolque á (to be towed into) este puerto.

11. Los modernos medios de fabricación de que disponemos, el abaratamiento (cheapening) de la mano de obra (labour) y las facilitaciones de que disfrutamos (we enjoy) merced á (thanks to) nuestros cuantiosos (abundant) recursos, nos permiten, ahora más que nunca, realizar nuestras ventas en condiciones que no cabe competencia posible (which preclude …).

12. Hemos asegurado buenas partidas de fustanes, mantas con franjas, gasas, y carranclanes.

EXERCISE 2 (40).

1. San Paulo (Brazilian) Railway.—The net revenue for the half-year from the main line (línea principal) amounted to £607,297 as against (contra) £743,077 in 1909.

2. The expenditure in England and the Interest on Stores (sobre los depósitos) reduce the amount to £594,714.

3. The Stock Exchange (la Bolsa) will be closed from this evening (esta tarde) until next Monday morning.

5. Sentiment turned somewhat bearish (hubo disposición á la baja) during the forenoon (la mañana), but became (se volvió) decidedly bullish (á la alza) towards the end of the day.

6. The following figures show the amount of bills and cheques which passed through the banker's clearing-house (por el banco de liquidación) during the week ended April 12th (que acabó el 12 de abril).

7. We must not attach (atribuir) too much importance to the rumours (los rumores, las especies) which are circulating in the market.

9. I was ignorant of the fact that (no sabía que) he had been declared a bankrupt.

10. I shall do all that depends on me (de mí dependa) to collect the money in full (por entero).

11. As far as we are concerned (en cuanto á nosotros), we have decided not to take (dar) any steps in the matter.

12. We do not wish to throw good money after bad (echar la soga tras el caldero).[133]

DEFECTIVE AND PRONOMINAL VERBS.

=Defective Verbs= are those only certain parts of which are in use, the rest having never existed in the language or having died out of it.

Soler. "To be wont," "to be accustomed to." Used in the pres. indic., Suelo, sueles, suele, solemos, soleis, suelen; in the imperf. indic., Solía, solías, etc.; and in the pres. perf., He solido, has solido, etc., as—

En su juventud solía trabajar con ahinco—ahora ya ha aflojado un poco: When he was young he used to work with fervour, now he begins to flag a little.

Placer (to please). Generally used in "Plegue á Dios" (may it please God) and "Pluguiera (pluguiese) á Dios" (might it please God).

It is still used also in the 3rd pers. of Pres. Indic., Imperf. Indic, and Past Def. (the Past Def. is "Plugo").

EXAMPLES—

Plegue á Dios que no se declare la huelga: May it please God that a strike is not declared.

Abolir (to abolish) is irregular like "mover" (viz., changes o into ue when stressed). Its irregular parts are however never used, and are substituted by giving a different turn to the sentence, as—

Digo que =se debe abolir= instead of =se abuela=: I say that it must be abolished.

Concerner (to concern) is only used in the pres. participle—concerniendo (concerning) and in the 3rd persons, as: concierne (it concerns), etc.

=Pronominal Verbs= are verbs conjugated throughout with a double pronoun of the same person, as—

Amarse—Yo me amo, tú te amas, el se ama, nosotros nos amamos, vosotros os amais, ellos se aman.

1. Reflexive Verbs (when the action falls back on the subject. See Lesson XVIII), as—Yo me amo: I love myself.

N.B.—The second pronoun must be direct object. If the second pronoun is indirect object, the verb is called Transitive Pronominal, as—

3. Intransitive Verbs made Pronominal from verbs ordinarily transitive (see Lesson XIX), as—

4. The 3rd pers. pronominal forms the Passive Voice, same as the verb ser, as—

N.B.—If the doer is expressed after using ser it may be preceded by de or por, as—

La sabiduría se alaba por todos: Wisdom is praised by all. (Grammar of the Academy.)

Pronominal Verbs are used in Spanish very frequently in conjunction with the article to avoid the use of the possessive adjective before parts of the body, or articles of dress,[135] as—

[Footnote 135: The article is most generally substituted for the possessive pronoun referring to parts of the body or articles of dress, whenever this can be done without producing ambiguity, as—

     Me dió la mano: He gave me his hand.
     Tiene los ojos azules: His eyes are blue.
     Le cogí el brazo: I caught his arm.
     Me duele la cabeza: My head aches.
     Me lastiman las botas: My boots hurt me.]

VOCABULARY.

=acusar recibo=, to acknowledge receipt =ascensor=, lift, hoist =bien estar=, well being =colección=, collection, set of samples =confiar á=, to entrust =confiar en=, to trust in =corresponder á las necesidades=, to meet the requirements =corriente, el que rige=, inst. =cucharas=, spoons =cuchillo=, knife =cueros=, hides =*deshacerse=, to get rid of =deshecho=, got rid of =distrito=, district =empacar=, to pack =empaqué, etc=., I packed, etc. =*establecerse=, to establish oneself =me establezco, etc=., I establish myself, etc. =fantasías=, fancies =herramientas=, tools =manga=, sleeve =*manifestar=, to inform, to say by letter =manifiesto, etc=., I inform, etc. =moeres=, mohair =nanquines=, nankeens =pieles=, skins =planchas de hierro=, sheet iron =principio=, beginning =telas para trajes= (=de Señora=), dress goods =tenedores=, forks =*torcer=, to twist =tuerzo, etc=., I twist, etc. =vale=, farewell, adieu =viajante=, traveller (commercial) =viajar=, to travel =vivamente=, earnestly, vividly

EXERCISE 1 (41).

1. Sin ningunas de sus gratas á que referirnos dirigimos á Vs. la presente para manifestarles que estando muy á corto (short) de fondos nos hemos visto precisados (we have been obliged) á girar á su cargo (on you) por el saldo de nuestra factura de Planchas de Hierro y Herramientas.

2. ¡Plegue á Dios que nuestros buenos deseos tengan pleno cumplimiento (may be fully realised)!

7. Todo lo que atañe al desarrollo de la agricultura ó que concierne el bien estar general del país me interesa vivamente.

8. La honradez (honesty) es alabada de (or por) todos pero nunca se alaba tanto como por los de manga ancha (those who themselves are not over-scrupulous).

9. El comerciante después de haberse muy bien establecido se consumió el capital en especulaciones bursátiles.

10. Nos hemos deshecho de los cuchillos, tenedores y cucharas sin tanta pérdida como temíamos.

11. El cajero bajando en el ascensor se ha torcido el pie y se está en casa guardando cama (in bed).

EXERCISE 2 (42).

1. With reference to your esteemed order of 1st inst. for skins and hides, we understand exactly what you want, but we much regret to say that we are unable to get in (obtenerlos) at your limit.

2. We acknowledge receipt of your favour (apreciable) of the 1st inst. with note of purchase we are to make on (de or por) your account, and we shall report thereon (contestaremos, relataremos) by our next.

3. We have picked up (escogido) a few suitable clearing lines (saldos), which are awaiting shipment (se embarcarán) by next steamer.

4. Stripes and checks.—Owing to a breakdown in the works these will not be ready for (antes de) another fortnight.

5. The goods were packed according to (de conformidad con) your instructions, but we take no responsibility for sending them (haberlos mandado) in bales instead of cases as usual (como de costumbre).

6. We hand (pasamos) you enclosed the invoice amounting to (importando en, ascendiendo a) £155 6s. 7d. to the debit of your account, value (valor al) 15th inst.

7. We can assure you that any (cualesquiera) orders entrusted to our care (que se nos confíen) will receive careful attention.

8. Our traveller will be in your district by the beginning of September, and he will have much pleasure in waiting upon you (en visitarles) with our full (completa) collection of dress goods and fancies.

9. We hasten to offer you a lot of cheap mohairs and nankeens and hope they will meet your requirements.

          Hoping to receive a favourable reply,
                            Yours faithfully,
                                          SMITH AND Co.

THE MOODS.

Mood is that form or modification of the Verb which marks the mode in which an action is viewed or stated.

There are =5= moods in Spanish: one the Infinitive and =4= Finite, viz., the Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive, and Imperative.

The =Infinitive Mood= (Modo Infinitivo) represents the action or state of being without any reference to time or person. The present and past participles are parts of the Infinitive Mood.

The Infinitive Mood may be used in the capacity of a noun either as Subject or Object of the sentence. It is then generally (but not necessarily) accompanied by the def. article, as—

El leer es útil: To read is useful.
Me es necesario el leer: It is necessary for me to read.

The form of the Pres. Part. used in this capacity in English is inadmissible in Spanish, e.g., we could never say "leyendo" for "el leer" (or "la lectura").

Una consignación á hacer or also á hacerse (á ser hecha): A shipment to be made.

The Infinitive Mood preceded by á may be used instead of the Finite
Mood introduced by "if," as—

Á saber yo que V. era accionista de aquella compañía, le habría comunicado luego aquella relación: If I had known (or had I known) that you were a shareholder in that society, I would have sent you at once that report. The =Present Participle= after "to be" is used in both languages to form the continuous or progressive tenses; in Spanish this happens much less frequently than in English, and only with verbs whose action implies =duration of time= and besides when it is spoken of as =actually in progress=. This form is never possible with the verb "to go," and is very rarely found with "to come," as—

Miro aquellas Mantas y Terlices que me gustan: I am looking at those
Blankets and Tickings which I like.

Estoy haciendo mi correspondencia, no puedo dejar el despacho: I am writing my correspondence, I cannot leave the office.

A =Preposition= before a Pres. Part. is either translated by a preposition followed by the Infinitive Mood or by the Pres. Part. without a Preposition, as—

EXCEPTION—

"I, acting as trustee," is translated "Yo, procediendo como síndico"; but "I wrote to the party acting as umpire" would be "Escribí á la persona que funcionaba (not funcionando) de árbitro."

After "Intentar,"[139] "Ver," "Oir," "Sentir," and "Simular" the
Infinitive only can be used in Spanish, as—

     Intento (or pienso) hipotecar la casa: I intend mortgaging the
     house.
     Le veo pasar: I see him passing.
     "My coming," "my going," etc., are translated: "El venir or el
     haber venido yo," etc.]

Sellados los sobres, los echó al correo: Having sealed the envelopes he posted them.

VOCABULARY.

=abogado=, lawyer, barrister =bombas de aire=, air pumps =*contribuir=, to contribute =contribuyo, etc=., I contribute =convenio=, agreement =desperdiciar=, to waste =diseño=, design =embajador=, ambassador =empeños=, obligations, engagements =estación, temporada=, season =Estados Unidos=, United States =excelentemente=, excellently =forma=, shape =forros=, linings =gorras=, caps =*hacer frente=, to face, to meet (bills, etc.) =honrar=, to honour =locomotora=, locomotive =malgastar=, to waste, to squander =Navidad=, Christmas =necesitar, desear=, to require =paso= step =*poner en conocimiento=, to inform =ponerse de acuerdo=, to agree =pormenores=, particulars =presupuesto=, estimate =proyectar=, to project, to plan =representar=, to represent, to act for =rizo del ala=, curl of the brim (of a hat) =secretario=, secretary =senado=, senate =someter=, to submit =supondré, etc=., I shall suppose, etc. =*suponer=, to suppose =supongo, etc=., I suppose, etc. =supuse, etc=., I supposed, etc. =tarea=, task =tratado de arbitraje=, arbitration treaty =varar=, to ground (a ship) =variedad=, variety =vendré, etc=., I shall come, etc. =vengo, vienes, etc=., I come, etc. =*venir=, to come =vine, etc=., I came, etc.

EXERCISE 1 (43).

1. El escribir concisa y claramente contribuye al buen éxito (success) de una casa comercial.

3. Á suponer yo que no honrara sus aceptaciones no le habría concedido el crédito.

5. Estoy escribiendo un presupuesto para una locomotora y cuatro bombas de aire que se piden para Chile; en acabando mi tarea saldré (I shall come out) con V.

6. Debemos escribir al abogado que representa al Sr. Fulano para ponerle en conocimiento de los pormenores que puedan interesarle.

8. Siento tener que informar á V. que he encontrado al Sr. Smith y le he oído decir que no puede hacer frente á sus empeños.

9. Ejecutada esta primera orden, y pagada que sea (once paid) le manifestaré claramente que no me conviene continuar bajo estas condiciones.

10. Se asegura que el secretario del departamento de Estado y el embajador de Inglaterra se han puesto de acuerdo, hace poco, sobre los principales puntos del tratado de arbitraje proyectado por el Presidente de los Estados Unidos.

11. Se supone que dicho (said) convenio será sometido al senado antes de Navidad.

12. Se han recibido noticias de haber naufragado (shipwrecked) un buque en la costa de Marruecos (Morocco) y de haber varado otro en Almería.

EXERCISE 2 (44).

1. I do not consider (no creo que) I have been fairly (equitativamente or bien) treated.

2. Silk and Cotton Linings.—We note (nos enteramos de) your complaints but you know they were bought as job lots (imperfectos) and in buying such lots, one has to put up with (conformarse con) some imperfections (defectos, imperfecciones).

4. The former (aquéllos) are exactly of the shape and curl you require and the latter (éstas) include (abarcan) a large variety of designs.

5. They will reach you (le llegarán) in plenty of time (con bastante anticipación) for the coming (entrante) season.

6. Please report (hacer sus comentos) on samples as soon as received (luego que las reciban).

7. Reading good papers is necessary to keep oneself posted up (mantenerse al corriente), but reading the sensational news (noticias sensacionales) of a certain press (prensa) is wasting one's time.

10. We shall write to the gentleman acting as secretary to send us (que nos envíe) a copy of the report.

12. I regret having to inform you that once I have paid what I owe (to owe = deber), I shall not continue my transactions with your firm.

The =Indicative Mood= (Modo Indicativo) is that form of the verb that expresses the action in a =positive manner=, as a =fact=.

The =Conditional Mood= (Modo Condicional)[140] affirms like the
Indicative Mood in a positive manner, =but subject to a condition=.

The =Imperative Mood= is used to command or to beg. This mood has only one tense and one distinct form of person: the second, as—

The 1st pers. sing, does not occur and the other persons are taken from the Present Subjunctive.[141]

In the 3rd person (and sometimes even the 1st plural) the pres. subj. may take the place of the Imperative used affirmatively. This becomes apparent by the use of Que, which precedes the Subjunctive and when an object pronoun occurs in the sentence, as—

[Footnote 140: English form: (auxiliary) should + verb for 1st persons; (auxiliary) would + verb for 2nd and 3rd persons.]

[Footnote 141: With only one exception—
=Ir= (to go). 1st pers. pl., Pres. Subj.—Vayamos. 1st pers. pl.,
Imperative—Vayamos or vamos (more used).]

[Footnote 142: It is borrowed entirely from the Pres. Subjunctive, as: No hables, no hable, no hablemos, no habléis, no hablen. The difference is of course, only apparent in the 2nd person.]

This mood offers some difficulty to English students; this arises from the fact that in English this mode of viewing the action of the verb is often rendered by the indicative mood or by the semi-auxiliary verbs "may," "might," "should," "would."

=Note=.—The Spanish rule on the Subjunctive mood must be therefore applied irrespective of the English construction.

GENERAL RULE.

Yo quiero que él venga: I wish him to come.
Yo quiero que él vaya: I wish him to go.

And then, only when, by reason of what precedes in the Principal Clause, the action of the Subordinate verb is not expressed in a positive manner (i.e., as a fact) but as merely contingent (i.e., only conceived in the mind), as—

Yo declare que él vino (or vendría): I say that he came or that he would come. Yo espero que él venga: I hope that he may come. Yo esperaba que él viniese: I hoped that he might, or would come.

SPECIAL RULES.

I. A verb in a dependent clause is placed (generally) in the Subjunctive Mood after verbs expressing an action, or emotion of the mind, when the subjects of the principal and of the subordinate verbs are different.

EXAMPLES of principal verbs which govern the following verb in the
Subjunctive Mood—

aconsejar (to advise) alegrarse de que (to be glad that) avergonzarse de que (to be ashamed that) conceder (to grant) conseguir (to obtain) desear (to desire) esperar (to hope) evitar (to avoid) impedir (to hinder) mandar (to order) querer (to wish) rogar (to ask, to beg) sentir (to regret) temer (to fear) confiar en que (to trust)

N.B.—(a) If the 2nd verb should have the same subject, use the
Infinitive Mood, as—

(b) After verbs expressing joy, shame, sorrow, or fear, the Indicative may be used instead of the Subjunctive.

Mándele V. que lo haga: Order him to do it.
Mándeselo V. hacer: Order him to do it.

VOCABULARY.

=agradar, favorecer=, to oblige =almacenero, dependiente de almacén=, warehouseman =celebrar=, to be glad of =colorido=, colouring =*complacer=, to oblige =complazco, etc=., I oblige, etc. =(el) cortapluma=, penknife =cortésmente=, politely =coste flete y seguro=, cost, freight and insurance =*dar las gracias=, to hank =demora=, delay =*demostrar confianza=, to show confidence =deplorar=, to deplore =dictados=, dictates =en seguida=, at once =franco de avería particular=, free of particular average =*hacer una remesa=, to send a remittance =intereses=, interests =justificarse=, to justify oneself =mucho=, much, exceedingly, greatly =navajas de afeitar=, razors =obrar=, to act =patines=, skates =primer dependiente=, chief clerk =propio=, own =*rogar=, to beg, to request =ruego, etc=., I beg, etc. =sin novedad=, safe and sound =tela para pantalones=, trousering =tijeras=, scissors

EXERCISE 1 (45).

1. En nuestra anterior les rogámos[143] nos enviasen una muestra de las telas de nuestros competidores.

2. Celebraremos mucho que encuentren ventaja en el cambio de vía (route) que hemos adoptado para sus envíos.

3. Siento haber hecho este error y siento también que mi primer dependiente no me lo haya hecho observar.

4. Me avergüenzo que por culpa de un dependiente de almacén negligente haya recibido V. un género por otro (the wrong goods).

6. No podemos ni deberíamos querer impedir á los otros que piensen como quieran; lo que sí debemos hacer es aconsejar á todos que obren según los dictados de su propia conciencia.

9. Deploro que él quiera justificarse con argumentos que se quiebran de sutiles (which do not stand the light of day).

[Footnote 143: The 1st pers. plural Past Definite of the 1st Conjugation may take an accent to distinguish it from the Present Indicative.]

EXERCISE 2 (46).

5. We hope you may arrive safe and sound, and we advise you to take care of yourself.

6. From what we can gather (por lo que tenemos entendido) the firm is doing a successful (buenos) business.

10. We do not want you to lose any money; on the contrary, we wish you to realise a substantial (buena) profit.

14. We notice (observamos) that the Razors, Scissors, Penknives and Skates are ready to be shipped, and trust (confiamos) that, as announced (nos anunciaron Vs.), they will come to hand (llegaran á manos) without delay.

15. We thank you for the confidence you have shown in us which we hope to justify and you may be sure that we shall do our best for (por) your interests.

Es menester que lo haga: It is needful that he does it.
Es necesario que lo haga: It is necessary that he does it.

EXCEPTIONS—

2. When the dependent verb has not its own subject, both the following constructions are correct—

Antes que (before)
En caso que (in case)
De miedo que (lest)
Por más que (however much, although)
Sin que (without)
Para que (so that)
Á menos que (unless)
Salvo que (except that)
Con tal que (provided that)
Sea que (whether … or)
Aunque (even if)

IV. The Subjunctive Mood is generally used after the following locations, when the action refers to future time, but the Indicative is used when the action refers to the past or present—

Después que (after)
Aunque (although)
De modo que (so that)
No obstante que (notwithstanding)
Cuandoquiera que (whenever)
Hasta que (until)
Luego que (as soon as)
Quienquiera que (whoever)
Comoquiera que (however)
Cualquiera que (whichever, whoever)
Dondequiera que (wherever)
El 1°, 2°, 3°, etc., que (the 1st 2nd 3rd, etc., that)
El único que (the only one that)
El solo que (the only one that)
El último que (the last that)
Nada que (nothng that)
Ninguo, nadie que (no one that)
El mejor (or any other superlative) que (the best etc., that)

Escribió de modo que su padre quedó contento: He wrote so that his father remained content.

Escriba V. de modo que su padre quede contento: Write so that your father may remain content.

Le pagué aunque no hizo su trabajo: I paid him, although he did not do his work.

No le pagaré aunque haga su trabajo: I shall not pay him although he may do his work.

The above rules have liberties and exceptions to be learnt by practice, generally turning on whether the action is intended to be alluded to =as a fact= or as =a mere conception=.

V. The Subjunctive Mood is used after cuando, así como, luego que and similar expressions when the action of the verb refers =to the future=, as—

VI. The Subjunctive Mood is used after si (conditional if) when the context requires the following verb in the past form, as—

N.B.—If the context requires the verb in the present form, the
Indicative Present must be used, as—

When, as in the latter example a future time is indicated, the Future
Subjunctive may be used instead of the Pres. Indicative, as—

VII. After como the Subjunctive Mood is used idiomatically but not necessarily, as—

VIII. After creer, pensar, opinar, and similar verbs, the following verb is generally in the Indicative; but after no creer, etc., the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. After creer, etc., used interrogatively, the verb may be Indicative or Subjunctive.

VOCABULARY.

=abacá=, Manilla hemp =calcetines=, half-hose, socks =cáñamo=, hemp =cancelar=, to cancel =coger=, to catch *=conseguir=, to succeed in =contado (al)=, (in) cash =dificultad=, difficulty =un dineral=, a mint of money =encogerse=, to shrink =equivocarse=, to be mistaken =la gente=, the people =mecanismo=, mechanism, contrivance =medias=, stockings, hose =ocurrir=, to happen =perfeccionar=, to perfect =persona=, person =por mas que=, however much, whatever *=probar=, to prove, to attempt, to try =pruebo, etc=., I try, etc. *=reconvenir=, to reprimand =repasar=, to look over *=saber=, to know =se, sabes, sabe, etc=., I know, etc. =sepa, sepas, sepa, etc=., I may know, *=ser menester=, to be necessary =telefonear=, to telephone =trabajo=, work =yute=, jute

EXERCISE 1 (47).

1. Es conveniente (proper) y aun absolutamente necesario que se acabe esta cuestión.

5. Es menester pues escribirle y apremiarle para que cumpla con su deber (to fulfil his duty).

6. Antes que escriba V., repase sus libros para que no haya miedo de que haya ocurrido alguna equivocación (mistake).

7. Á menos que pague le citaremos ante los Tribunales (we shall summon him) de miedo que otros sean pagados con nuestro dinero.

8. Por más que V. diga, las medias, calcetines, y guantes no son iguales á las muestras que sirvieron de base (as a basis) al contrato.

9. Sin que V. me lo diga lo haré, salvo que intervenga algun contratiempo (any hitch should happen) y con tal que, ínterin (in the meantime) llegue su remesa.

10. Sea que llegue, sea que no, V. debería hacerlo aunque le fuese en ello todo su capital (all your capital were at stake).

14. Enviaría las zarazas si estuviese seguro que no me viniera (imp. subj. of venir) después con quejas.

EXERCISE 2 (48).

4. It is certain the white shirtings have shrunk too much in bleaching (en el blanqueo).

5. He insisted until he paid him something and now he will continue to insist until he pays him something more.

6. The foreign correspondent (el corresponsal de lenguas extranjeras) did his work so that his employer was satisfied.

7. Write clearly so that people may read your writing (su letra) without difficulty.

8. Whenever I spoke to him he was very polite, therefore, I shall put (diré) a word in his favour whenever I can do so.

9. I reprimanded him notwithstanding that he was my son, and I shall do so whenever it is necessary in spite of his being now a man.

10. The first to come was the office-boy (muchacho, hortera [joc.]), and he will be the last to go (á salir).

11. The first firm that attempts it will burn its fingers (se cogerá los dedos).

15. Whoever succeeds in perfecting this contrivance will be sure to make (es seguro que hará) a mint of money.

16. We shall be thankful if you will cancel our order for flax, hemp, Manilla hemp and jute.

THE TENSES.

The Tenses in Spanish being mostly used as in English, we shall only call attention to such of the principal differences between the two languages as have not yet been treated.

The English emphatic Present, "I do say," must be expressed by "Lo digo en efecto," "lo digo de veras," "lo digo sí."

"I do" with a verb understood after, as "Do you understand? I do" is translated by "Sí," "Sí, señor," or "Sí entiendo."

"Are you an engineer? Yes, I am"; "He is generous with me, and I am with him"; "He is my surety, and I am his"; must be translated by "Es V. ingeniero? Sí, lo soy"; "Es generoso conmigo y yo lo soy con él"; "Él es mi fiador y yo lo soy suyo."

It is most important to learn the difference between the Imperfect Indicative and the Past Definite (or Preterite), because these two tenses admit of no compromise in Spanish.

The =Imperfect Indicative=[146] describes an action or state which was present when another past action took place, or another past state existed.

[Footnote 147: Or Narrating Past (this is why it is often called the
Historical Past).]

[Footnote 148: "Napoleon I died in 1821" is an event. "I fell" is grammatically also an event.]

Consequently, it will be understood that whilst the Past Def. refers to "one point of time" or "several =separate= points of time," the Imperfect embraces a whole indefinite period.

The following examples will show clearly the different functions of these two tenses—

Le escribí una vez (or dos o tres veces) mientras él viajaba en Argentina: I wrote to him once (or two or three times) whilst he travelled[149] in Argentina.

[Footnote 149: Travelled—was travelling, but notice that in Spanish we would also have the progressive form—"estaba viajando."]

Encontré á Luis, quien llevaba levita negra: I met Louis, who wore[150] a black frock-coat.

[Footnote 150: Wore—was wearing. Here in Spanish the progressive form "estaba llevando" would not be admissible because there is no real progressive action.]

Hacía grandes negocios cuando residía en Chile: I had a large business when I resided in Chili.

Los Cartagineses eran un pueblo comercial y emprendedor: The
Carthagenians were a commercial and enterprising people.

Él leía al entrar yo en el bufete del abogado: He was reading when I entered the lawyer's office.

En Inglaterra trabajaba[151] ocho horas cada día: In England I worked (used to work) eight hours a day.

[Footnote 151: As will be seen, the English "was" followed by a pres. part. or the expression "used to be" may always be rendered by the Spanish Imperfect, but the Spanish progressive form also exists: "Estaba leyendo" (he was reading), and "used to" has its equivalent "solía":—"Solía trabajar 8 horas" (he used to work 8 hours).]

Cada mes recibiamos nuestro sueldo: Each month we received (used to receive) our pay.

Trabajé en Inglaterra 5 años[152]; Viví dos años en Londres y tres en Manchester: I worked 5 years in England; I lived two years in London and three in Manchester.

As will be seen in all the examples of the Imperfect, the action or state is described as "existing in the past."

VOCABULARY.

=abarrotado=, glutted, cram full =acorazado=, iron-clad =ajo=, garlic =alerta=, on the alert, on the look out =brisa=, breeze =cebollas=, onions =conducta=, conduct, behaviour =contrabando=, contraband =cosecha=, harvest, harvest-time, crop *=dar en el clavo=, to hit it =dátiles=, dates =encogido=, shrivelled, shrunk =fruta=, fruit =granadas=, pomegranates =guardias aduaneras=, custom house officials =higos=, figs =inmaturo=, verde, unripe =limones=, lemons =llevar=, to carry, to wear =matute=, smuggling =mirar=, to look =moscatel=, muscatel grapes =naranja=, orange ¡=ojo=! attention! =olvidar=, to forget =pasas de Corinto=, currants =podrido=, rotten =por decirlo así=, so to say, as it were *=querer decir=, to mean =recobrar=, to recover =reprensible=, objectionable =resumir=, to recapitulate, to state briefly =sinnúmero=, a large number, innumerable =travesía=, journey by sea

EXERCISE 1 (49).

1. Cuando yo era más joven y me gustaba viajar, hacía la travesía de Liverpool á Las Palmas todos los años.

2. Estuve allí la última vez en 1905 principalmente para recobrar mi salud, pero como viaje de negocios también tuvo muy buen éxito.

3. No había entonces como la hay hoy en día tanta competencia en ese comercio.

4. Cuando llegó el buque á La Coruña había un sinnúmero de guardias aduaneras alerta, pues se decía que llevaba muchos géneros de contrabando.

6. De matute es lo mismo que de contrabando y matutero ó contrabandista es el que introduce tales géneros.

9. Perfectamente y voy á resumírsela en dos palabras—El uno es pasado, pasado y nada más, el otro es un presente de lo pasado por decirlo así; ¡mire V.! "Encontré á Carlos": pasado absoluto; "Llevaba sombrero blanco"; pasado hoy, presente entonces; ¿qué le parece á V.?

EXERCISE 2 (50).

3. Did you receive the B/L for the cargo (cargamento) of oranges and grapes from Seville?

4. I did; and I expect a good parcel (partida) of muscatels from Valencia as well.

7. I am sorry they were delayed so long because now the market is glutted with fruit.

9. We received this year three cargoes of bananas from the Canary Islands (Islas Canarias). Six were consigned to us last year, but we used to receive many more when we sent our traveller in those islands at harvest time.

10. Ten thousand boxes of currants, 3,000 of figs, and 4,561 of dates were sold by auction.

11. There had not been such large quantities offered for a long time (hacía mucho tiempo que).

12. The iron-clad "Achilles" left yesterday for Vigo. The sea was perfectly calm although a light breeze blew, or was blowing (soplaba not estaba soplando), from the S.W. (sudoeste).

14. When I went to say good-bye to him (para despedirme de 61) he was writing (escribía or estaba escribiendo) a letter.

15. The cargo was examined and it was found that some of the fruit was unripe, some shrivelled or frost-bitten (tomada por la escarcha), and a parcel of garlic was rotten and had to be destroyed.

Uses of the Past Definite (or Preterite) and the Present Perfect (as: Yo he comprado: I have bought).

According to the English rule, the Past Def. (or Preterite) should be used to narrate events which happened in the past, in a period of time which does not include the present moment as—

The Present Perfect (called in Spanish Preterito Compuesto) should be used when the period of time includes the present moment, as—

By following this rule students will always be correct, but we must notice that in Spanish we find the "Preterito compuesto" often used instead of the Past Definite—

2. When although entirely past and definite, it is very recent, as—Se lo he dicho hace un momento: I told him a moment ago.

N.B.—Plegue a Dios que el año que hoy empieza sea mas feliz que lo ha sido el pasado: May it please God that the year which commences to-day may be happier than the last has been (Grammar of the Academy).[153]

[Footnote 153: Here the Present Perfect is used in both languages, because the effects reach up to the present moment.]

The English Compound Past—"I had spoken"—is rendered by "yo había hablado" or "yo hube hablado."

"Yo hube hablado" is used only after cuando, luego que, inmediatamente que; viz., when the action is represented as immediately preceding another.

Cuando hube declarado mis intenciones, Cuando declaré mis intenciones, se convenció—When I declared my intentions, he was convinced.

The =Future Indicative=, (as well as the =Conditional Mood=) are used in
Spanish oftener than in English to denote probability, as—

The =Future Progressive=, is not used in Spanish when its place may be taken by the ordinary Future Simple, as—

The =Present Subjunctive= in Spanish refers to time present or future; for time future, its place may be taken by the future Subj. (little used).[154]

[Footnote 154: Except after "cuando" (but not in conversation), as—Se lo diré cuando venga or cuando viniere: I shall tell it him when he comes. The Fut. Subj. is also used (not in conversation) after si instead of Pres. Indic., as—Le serviré si la ocasión se ofrece or se ofreciere: I shall serve him if the occasion presents itself.]

The verb in the Subj. Mood is put in the Present tense when the preceding verb is in the Pres. Indic., Future Indic. (simple) or Imperative, as—

Quiero que él lo haga: I want him to do it.
Querré " " ": I shall want " ""
Quiere tú " " ": Want (thou) " ""

N.B.—When the preceding verb is in the "preterito compuesto," e.g., "he dicho," when "he dicho" stands exactly for the English "I have told," it governs the Pres. Subj., as—

When the preceding verb is in the Future Perfect, the verb in the Subjunctive may be put in the Present when its action does not refer to the past, as—

Habré querido que trabaje hoy o mañana: I shall have (may have) wanted him to work to-day or to-morrow.

VOCABULARY.

=*adquirir=, to acquire =alquilar=, to rent, to hire, to take or give on lease =arado=, plough =boni cación, rebaja=, allowance =cargar=, to charge =ceder=, to yield, to sell, to cede, to warrant make over =cédula de aduana=, custom house =colmo=, climax, record =color firme, sólido=, fast colour =contrarrestar=, to check =de otra manera=, otherwise =desarrollar=, to develop =empréstito=, loan =época=, epoch, period, time =explotar=, to exploit, to work =igualar, hermanar=, to match =*invertir=, to invest (money) =justificar=, to justify, to warrant =material rodante=, rolling stock (railway) =no bien=, as soon a | =pana (acordonada)=, cords (corduroy) =perspectivas=, prospects =piezas de repuesto=, spare pieces (machinery) =puros, cigarros, tabacos=, cigars =quinta=, villa =rastrillos=, harrows =rechazar=, to reject =reja=, ploughshare =revocar=, contramandar, to countermand *=tener cuenta=, to pay, viz., to be advantageous =terreno=, land =traspaso=, goodwill =trilladora=, threshing-machine

EXERCISE 1 (51).

3. Le he dicho que los fondos (stocks), obligaciones, ú otros valores cualesquiera (whatsoever) han de depositarse en manos seguras.

4. Yo le había explicado que la Compañía se había constituído para comprar, alquilar (take on lease) ó adquirir de otra manera y explotar y desarrollar cualesquier minas ó terrenos metalíferos; pero no bien le hube anunciado (or le anuncié) que se trataba de terrenos situados en el Asia Menor, se rehusó á tomar las acciones que le había ofrecido.

7. Deseo que V. invierta su dinero en esta empresa como deseaba el ano pasado que V. lo invirtiese en el Empréstito del Gobierno Austríaco (Austrian).

8. Le diré que se apresure a despachar los arados con sus rejas y piezas de repuesto, los rastrillos, y las trilladoras.

10. Sí, le ha escrito ayer que no retardase el embarque pues hacen mucha falta, hemos excedido la época fijada para la entrega y no nos tendría cuenta que la Sociedad Agrícola nos los rechazara.

EXERCISE 2 (52).

4. He resorted to extreme means in order to bring about (llegar á) a solution of the difficulty.

6. Large orders for railway rolling stock were countermanded on account of (á causa de) the feared political complications.

7. Velvet and Cord manufacturers have curtailed their production with a view (á fin de) to check the downward (á la baja) tendency of prices.

11. Spot cotton (el algodón disponible) was quoted yesterday one point higher than the day before, but futures declined (bajaron) 3/32

12. Perhaps there are better prospects of the growing crop (nueva cosecha) at present.

13. Do not be long (no tarde V.) in making up your mind (decidirse de) one way or the other.

14. No, I shall soon decide what to do, but I must have a little time for reflection. I cannot bind myself on the spot (al punto).

15. Some of the prints have grease spots (manchas de aceite) and we must refuse to accept them unless under (a menos que nos haga) a reasonable allowance.

THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

Tener and haber are used for the English "to have," followed by an infinitive, as—

Tienen que acabar el trabajo para fines de Enero: They have to finish the work for the end of January.

Hemos de seguir los consejos de los peritos en la materia: We have to follow the advice of those expert in the matter.

In such cases Tener is followed by que and Haber by de.[155] The former indicates compulsion or necessity, the latter a moral or self-imposed duty.

"Tener que hacer, que escribir, que comer" and similar expressions translate also "to have something to do, to write, to eat," as—

Tenemos que comer por todo el día: We have something to eat which will suffice for the whole day.

Tener hambre, sed, sueño, calor, frío, vergüenza, and miedo: To be hungry, thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold, ashamed, and afraid.

[Footnote 157: The te is the "ethical dative" (which is much more used in Spanish than in English).]

We said that the past participle when used with Tener agrees with the direct object, as—

But when there is no direct object, of course the past participle remains invariable, as—

[Footnote 158: This use of tener for haber, especially with no direct obj. following is in general to be avoided; in this example, however, "tengo entendido," the phrase has more force than "he entendido." It implies that the mind is full with the effect of the communication.]

[Footnote 159: Model verb for all those ending in cer or cir preceded by a vowel, except cocer (conj. like mover), mecer (reg.) and hacer. (Those ending in ducir are further irreg. in the Past Definite.)

VOCABULARY.

=abrigar=, to shelter, to nourish (the hope) =acciones preferentes=, preference shares =agudo=, sharp, keen =aplazar=, to postpone =asistir=, to assist, to attend =atendible=, plausible =atrasado=, overdue =caldos=, wines and oils (collectively) =consabido=, in question, aforesaid =cuenta de venta=, account sale =dedicarse=, to devote oneself =dejar sin efecto=, to cancel =delicado de salud=, in indifferent health =desfavorable, contrario=, unfavourable, adverse =*deshacerse de=, to part with =domicilio=, registered office of a company, also residence =en este momento=, at the present moment =ensayo=, trial, venture =equidad=, fair dealing =*haber menester=, to need =indemnización=, indemnity =junta de acreedores=, meeting of creditors =liquidar=, to liquidate, to settle, to clear off goods, etc. =mediería, artículos de punto=, hosiery =pagaré=, promissory note, note of hand =palacio=, palace =plazo=, term =respiro=, breath, breathing time, days of grace for payment, delay =retirar=, to withdraw (los) =reunidos=, those present =*tener en cuenta=, to take into consideration =trabajar, *ir, á porfía=, to vie with each other =trámites de la ley=, legal means =viaje de ida=, outward voyage =viaje de vuelta=, inward voyage

EXERCISE 1 (53).

2. Si V. no quiere liquidar el consabido asunto tendré de apelar á los trámites de la ley.

3. V. no habrá menester de tanto pues abrigo las mejores intenciones y lo que pido es sólo unas pocas semanas de respiro.

4. He aquí pues lo que se ha de hacer, V. me firmará un pagaré para fin de Febrero y queda entendido que no concederé después ninguna extensión del plazo.

5. Si entonces V. no satisface su deuda mi abogado dará los pasos necesarios y V. será responsable de (liable for) los gastos y perjuicios habidos y por haber (damages accrued and to accrue).

6. La Compañía Nacional de Transportes (carriage) ha instalado su domicilio en el nuevo Palacio de la Libertad.

7. Dicha Sociedad tiene un capital de un millón de pesetas; la mitad en acciones preferentes y la mitad en ordinarias.

8. Se ha verificado la junta de acreedores del Sr…. á la cual no asistió el principal interesado por encontrarse delicado de salud.

10. Fundándose en atendibles razones nuestro corresponsal deja sin efecto el pedido que nos había confiado.

EXERCISE 2 (54).

1. We shall have to take in the hosiery although it is slightly (un poquito) overdue.

3. Who is to decide on the subject of the indemnity due to the captain of the ship?

4. If we want to withdraw the goods without producing (presentar) a B/L. we shall have to sign an indemnity (indemnidad).

5. We have received the account sale for our wines and oils and regret the venture has not turned out as well as we expected.

6. We found a great difficulty in parting with our surplus (excesivas) stock, of which we had to dispose (disponer) at prices very much reduced.

7. We are unable to inform you to what extent (hasta qué punto) you may calculate on (contar con) our remittance, as much will depend on circumstances over which we have no control (independientes de nuestra voluntad).

8. The rate (el tipo) of the insurance premium is 6/-per cent. on the outward and 5/-per cent. on the homeward voyage.

9. I very much question the advisability (dudo mucho la ventaja) of putting prices up at the present moment when so many adverse circumstances have to be taken into consideration.

10. As a matter of fact (en efecto) most of us (la mayor parte de nosotros) think it would be better to reduce them somewhat (algo) now that competition is so keen.

11. They vie with each other in cutting prices down (reducir) with the result that profits are ridiculously low (irrisorios).

THE ADVERBS.

Abajo (below)
Además (besides)
Adelante, delante (before, in point of place)
Ahora (now)
*Alrededor, *entorno (around)
Amenudo, á menudo (often)
*Antes (before, in point of time)
Antes, antes bien (rather)
Anoche (last night)
Anteanoche (the night before last)
Apenas, así que (as soon as)
Aquí, acá (here, hither)
Allí, allá (there, thither)
De aquí, de allí (hence, thence)
Aun, todavía (still, yet)
Ayer (yesterday)
Anteayer (the day before yesterday)
Bastante (sufficiently)
Bien (well)
*Cerca (near)
*Debajo (under)
*Por debajo (underneath)
Demasiado (too, too much)
*Dentro (within)
*Después (after, afterwards)
*Detrás (behind)
Donde[160] (where)
En breve (shortly)
*Encima (upon, above)
*Enfrente (opposite)
Entonces (then)
*Fuera (outside)
Hacia (towards)
Hacia adelante (forwards)
Hacia abajo (downwards)
Hasta (till, until)
Hoy (to-day)
*Junto (next)
*Lejos (far)
Luego (presently, soon, then)
Mañana (to-morrow)
Mal (badly)
Más (more)
Mejor (better)
Menos (less)
Mientras (whilst)
Mientras tanto (in the meantime)
Mucho (much)
Muy[161] (very)
Nunca, jamás (never)
Ni … ni … (neither … nor …)
Ni tampoco (not either)
Peor (worse)
Pronto (soon)
Tal vez, acaso, quizá, quizás (perhaps)
Tan, así (so)
Tanto (so much)
Tarde (late)
Temprano (early)
Ya[162] (already)

[Footnote 160: After verbs of motion also "á donde." After verbs of rest also "en donde."]

[Footnote 161: Used as in English, but always muy before a past part., as: Muy apreciado (much esteemed). Such phrases as "He is rich but not very" are translated "Es rico pero no mucho or tanto."]

Those marked with an asterisk may govern a noun or pronoun through the preposition de with the exception of junto, which governs these words through á.

The English termination ly is rendered by =mente= added to the feminine form of the adjective, when this changes for the feminine.

Adverbs are compared like the adjectives, but the superlative relative of adverbs is formed with lo más, and lo menos, as—

Esta adornado lo más ricamente posible: It is ornamented in the richest manner possible.

Besides the primitive adverbs given in our list, there are many adverbial locutions—

á toda prisa (with all speed). á la española (in the Spanish fashion). á troche y moche, á trochimoche (in a slipshod way). con blandura (gently). de mala gana (unwillingly). de vez (or de cuando) en cuando (from time to time). tal cual vez (once in a while). un si es, no es (ever so little).

When an adverb is followed by a verb in English que must be inserted in Spanish before a finite mood and de before an infinitive, as—

The phrases "I say so," " I think it is (so)," "I do not think so," are rendered "Digo que si" (or "lo digo"), "Creo que sí" (or "lo creo"), "Creo que no" (or "no lo creo").

Some adjectives are used adverbially, as in English, without the addition of mente, as—

When two or more adverbs ending in mente occur in the same sentence, the termination is added only to the last, as—

Escribe clara,[163] concisa[163] y elegantemente: He writes clearly, concisely and elegantly.

Pres. Ind., Caigo — — — — — Pres. Subj., Caiga, caigas, caiga, caigamos, caigáis, caigan.

VOCABULARY.

=á duras penas=, with great difficulty =á la larga=, m the long run =á medida que=, in proportion as =á mejor andar=, at best =á plazos=, in instalments =ajeno=, averse =apagado= extinguished, dull (colours) =*asentar=, to book (an order) =chillones=, gaudy, screaming (colours) =claro=, light (colours) =claro y redondo= (quite clearly) =columna=, column =con el corazón en la mano=, quite candidly =confeccionar=, to make up =*confesar=, to confess =conservas alimenticias=, preserves =definir=, to define (also to settle) =dificultad=, difficulty =ensayo=, trial, proof, venture =escoger=, to choose =exceder=, to exceed =facilidad=, ease, facility =fijo=, fixed, firm =fondos=, grounds (pictures, cloth) =gana= (=de buena, de mala=), willingly, unwillingly =ganga=, a bargain =langosta=, lobster =mariscos=, shell-fish =muestrarios=, pattern cards, sets =oscuro=, dark =paquete=, packet, parcel =*(no) poder menos de ..=., not to be able to help =puntos=, points, spots (in prints) =restos=, remnants =sacar=, to pull out, to get out, to get back =sardinas=, sardines =satines brochados=, brocaded satins =serie=, series =sin mirar á gastos=, regardless of expense =sobrio=, quiet (colour) =solidez=, solidity =tomar á mal=, to take amiss =vivo=, vivid, bright (colours)

EXERCISE 1 (55).

1. Tiene V. (there is) tanta variedad de dibujos que verdaderamente cuesta dificultad (it is difficult) el escoger entre diseños con flores, con puntos, con rayas, y cuadritos.

2. Con facilidad sin embargo (however) podrá V. hacer un surtido entre las dos series que le enviamos, de fondos claros y oscuros, y de colores vivos, chillones, sobrios, y apagados.

3. Desde algún tiempo á esta parte tratan Vs. los negocios tan á trochimoche que ya no sabemos á que atenernos (what to think of it).

4. Hago esta consignación de mala gana y le confieso claro y redondo que siguiendo V. á vender tan barato y á plazos tan largos no me tendrá cuenta hacerle otros envíos sino por su propia cuenta ó contra pedidos fijos de los clientes.

6. Á la par que Vs. (same as yourselves) no somos ajenos á la idea de hacer algún ensayo en la importación de langosta, mariscos, sardinas, y conservas alimenticias, pero debemos ir á medias en cualquiera transacción que se decida.

7. Creo que á duras penas sacará su dinero y á mejor andar tendrá que perder todo su trabajo.

9. Recibirá V. en paquete asegurado los nuevos muestrarios que se han confeccionado sin mirar á gastos.

10. Estos restos son una verdadera ganga y además, podrá V. pagarlos al contado ó á plazos largos (easy) como más le convenga.

11. Dejaremos en suspenso su reclamo hasta definirlo personalmente en su próximo viaje á Inglaterra.

12. No puede menos de admitir (to admit) que á la larga esto no puede convenirme, y espero que V. no lo tome á mal que se lo exponga con el corazón en la mano.

EXERCISE 2 (56).

1. After writing you by last mail we are informed by the maker of the Brown Linens (lienzos morenos) that he will be able to book your order which will be delivered before the end of next month.

2. The Brocaded Satins will range between (costarán desde) 4d. and 5d. a yard, and we shall ship them within six weeks but only after receiving your letter confirming them.

4. Not far from here and next to the Bank there is the Insurance Office, which is much admired for its solidity and fine appearance.

6. Perhaps it is too large an outlay (gasto) for the Company, but there was no money wasted.

7. The columns in the porch have cost so much because they are of the best Carrara marble (mármol).

8. Whilst we admit that the prints sent may have been just a little bit (un si es no es) off shade (diferentes al color pedido) your claim is quite out of the question.

9. Towards the beginning of the autumn our Mr. So-and-So will make a trip (hará un viaje) to your place, and he will have the honour of waiting upon you (de visitarles) with our latest novelties (novedades).

10. You do not understand how it is possible that your neighbours are able to undersell you (vender más bajo que V.), nor can we make it out (explicárnoslo) either.

THE PREPOSITIONS.

Á (at, to)
Ante (before—in point of place)
Bajo (under)
Con (with)
Contra, en contra de (against)
De (of, from)
Desde (since, from)
En (in)
Entre (between, among)
Hacia (towards)
Hasta (till, as far as, even)
Para (for the purpose of, for, in order to)
Por (for, by, because of)
Según (according to)
Sin (without)
Sobre (upon)
Tras, tras de (behind)
Para con (una persona),[164] (towards, with, a person)

Many verbs take in Spanish a different preposition than in English. Some verbs take a preposition in one language and none in the other, as—

Depender de una promesa: To depend on a promise.
Convenir en una transacción: To agree to a compromise.
Confiar en un desconocido: To trust a perfect stranger.
Regalarle un cheque: To present him with a cheque.

The use of the correct preposition according to the verb it follows is best learnt by practice. In the second part of the grammar, the student will be helped with a list of the most characteristic differences between the two languages. The Spanish construction is not quite so rigid in this respect as is the English.

Difference between de and desde both translating "from"—=De= mark the origin only, as:

Desde el 1° de Enero se estableció en comercio por cuenta propia: From the 1st of January, he started in business on his own account.

He viajado desde Londres hasta Calcuta en tantos días: I travelled from
London to Calcutta in so many days.

The chief difficulty in the employment of the Spanish prepositions is the use of Por and Para—

Este establecimiento fué fundado por mi bisabuelo: This establishment was founded by my great-grandfather.

[Footnote 165: After the passive voice of verbs denoting mental action when formed by ser, Por is elegantly substituted by De, as: Son amados por or de sus padres (they are loved by their parents). But: Se aman por sus padres.]

Por mejor le envié yo como viajante: I sent you to travel, holding you for a better man.

VOCABULARY.

=abogar=, to plead =acceder=, to accede =afanarse=, to exert oneself, to take much trouble =ahorrar=, to save =ajuste=, adjustment =á la verdad=, really =altos hornos=, blast furnaces, foundries =amarillo=, yellow, buff =amistad=, friendship =aparentar=, to show outwardly =aprovecharse=, to take advantage of, to avail oneself =aproximarse=, to approach, to draw near =automóvil=, motor-car =azadas=, hoes =azadones=, pick-axes =azuelas=, adzes =bultos=, packages =cizallas=, shears =croquis=, sketch =diseñador=, draughtsman =*disponer=, to dispose, to arrange =echar al correo=, to (throw into the) post =empeoramiento=, deterioration =en blanco=, blank =estancia=, stay =(un) fardín, un cuarto=, a farthing, a trifling amount =*forzar=, to force, to strain =hachuelas=, hatchets =hilar=, to spin =largo de talle=, full, complete =lingotes de hierro=, pig-iron =martillo=, hammer =molestia=, trouble =moratoria=, extension of time (for payment) =palas=, shovels =para= (=estar=), (to be) on the point of … =picos=, picks =plomo=, slate, lead colour =por= (=estar por escribir=), to be (yet) unwritten =previsión=, foresight =los síntomas=, the symptoms =suspender los pagos=, to stop payments =tejer=, to weave =tenazas=, tongs =textil=, textile =*trocar=, to barter, to exchange =yerno, hijo político=, son-in-law

EXERCISE 1. (57)

1. De España nos vienen las ricas uvas y las jugosas (juicy) naranjas, además de minerales—de hierro y cobre.

3. Desde el año 1900 hasta el 1910 aumentó mucho la población del Reino Unido.

4. Los Altos Hornos de Bilbao se han construido para la producción de lingotes de hierro.

5. La Sociedad reúne poderosos elementos (commands great resources) para la fabricación de toda clase de maquinaria para la hiladura y la tejeduría del algodón.

7. El empaque y el transporte cuestan lo mismo y precio por precio preferimos ahorrarnos molestias.

8. Por un falso sentido de honor aquella casa forzó su crédito para no tener que pedir moratorias, dando esto por resultado el empeoramiento de su posición.

9. Compré un automóvil por £1,000 mas lo troqué con este que vale á la verdad £1,500 dando sólo £200 por la diferencia.

11. Á una veintena por vez colocámos aquellos picos, palas, azadas, azadones, hachuelas, azuelas, martillos, cizallas, y tenazas.

12. Se presentó por su yerno, abogó por él por una hora larga de talle, todo por su hija, pues por el chico (young man, lit., child) maldita la gana que tendría (he would not have liked the idea) de afanarse tanto por él.

13. Haré por colocar sus driles blancos, plomo, y amarillos (buff) para los cuales me dió orden verbal su Sr. hijo durante su estancia aquí y que se despacharán por (or por la vía de) Burdeos y Cartagena.

14. Nuestro mercado sigue muy encalmado sin que por el momento presente síntomas de mejora.

15. La primera carta está para echarse al correo pero la segunda y la tercera quedan aun por escribir.

EXERCISE 2 (58).

2. It would not be possible for it to fall unless the Textile Bank should stop payments.

4. With all the weight of the evidence (las pruebas) you have collected (recogido), it would be very risky to proceed against him from such a distance.

5. Between one thing and the other I did not know what to choose, so I left them to settle the matter between themselves.

6. These sketches have been made by our draughtsman for our customers, the owners of the Sugar Mill in Parahyba.

7. He did the work for the pleasure of it but would not (no quiso) charge a farthing for it.

9. I accede willingly for the sake of old friendship (por la antigua amistad que nos une).

10. As the time of the year is drawing near when your firms effect their purchases in this country, we beg to address you to renew the offer of our services.

11. We shall be extremely glad if you will avail yourselves of our offers and send us orders for some of your requirements.

12. The adjustment of the average per S.S. "Nile" is still hanging fire (todavía pendiente), but we are pushing the Insurance Co. to our utmost (todo lo posible) for a speedy settlement.

14. Being (por ser) so young he shows a good deal of (mucho) tact and foresight.

THE CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

*Á menos que (unless)
Á pesar de (in spite of)
Así como (just as)
Así que, de suerte que (so that)
*Afín de que, *Para que (that—in order that)
Aunque, bien que, si bien (although, even if)
*Bien … bien (whether … or)
Como (as)
*Con tal que (provided)
Con que (so)
*Cuando (if)
Mas, pero, empero[166] (but)
Sino (but—after a negative[167])
Ni … ni (neither … nor)
No sea que* (lest, also perhaps)
No obstante (nevertheless)
Ó … ó[168] (either … or)
Ora … ora[168] (now … now—with indic. mood)
Porqué, porque (why, because)
Portanto (therefore)
Puesto que[169] (seeing that)
Pues (since)
Que (that)
Si (if, whether)
Sin embargo (however, notwithstanding)
Según (according)
Siquiera (at least, even)
Y[170] (and)
Ya … ya[171] (whether … or—with subj. mood)
Ya que (since, seeing that)

[Footnote 167: Unless a finite verb follows, as: No tengo dinero pero gozo de buena reputación (I have no money but I enjoy a good reputation).]

[Footnote 170: Before words commencing with i, also hi not followed by a vowel, use é, as: "Padre é hijo," but "Nieve y hielo."]

[Footnote 171: "Ora … ora" and "ya … ya" both mean "now … now" (with indic. mood), and "whether … or" (with subj. mood).]

The conjunctions marked with an asterisk are always followed by a verb in the Subjunctive Mood.

No quiero comprar Títulos de Gobierno ni Obligaciones de Ferrocarriles tampoco: I do not wish to buy Government Stock, nor Railway Stocks either.

=Interjections=, being mere exclamations, do not stand in grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.

caramba, cáspita (these express practically all kinds of emotions) ay[172] (oh! grief or threat) bah, ca, quiá (humph!) ce, hola, ola (I say!) chito, chitón (shut up!) cuidado, ¡ojo! (attention! look out!) ea (come!) he (hey) húy (oh! physical pain) ojalá (oh, that) por Dios (for heaven's sake) tate, zape (what! (surprise)) tonterías (nonsense!) uf (oh! weariness or fatigue)

[Footnote 172: This can govern a noun or pronoun, as—¡Ay de mí! Woe to me! ¡Ay de Pedro! Woe to Peter!]

As well as Ah or Ha, Oh or O as in English, and many words used as exclamations, as—

¡Silencio! ¡calle! ¡calle la boca (silence! hush! shut your mouth!) ¡vamos! (much used), (come! come now!) ¡que lástima! (what a pity!) ¡poco á poco! (gently, Sir!) ¡héteme[173] aquí! (here I am!) ¡hételos[173] aquí! (here they are, etc.)

VOCABULARY.

=aficionado (á)=, fond of =aflojar=, to relax =ansioso=, eager =*apetecer=, to desire, to covet =bastante bien=, fairly well =berzas, coles= (f.), cabbages =buscar=, to look for, to search =buscarse=, to bring upon oneself =cauteloso, cauto=, cautious =conexiones=, connections, couplings (machinery) =contrincante=, neighbour, competitor =detenidamente=, fully =disturbado, transtornado=, disturbed, upset =engranajes=, gearings =escala=, scale =hortelano=, fruit gardener =inquilino=, tenant =ir á=, to lead to =llantas=, tyres =*moler=, to grind =operaciones=, operations, dealings =perro=, dog =plaza=, market place, square, place =*poner al corriente=, to inform =refrán=, proverb =repentino=, sudden =resortes=, springs (mach.) =sosa=, soda =tambores=, drums =traspapelado=, mislaid (of papers)

EXERCISE 1 (59).

1. Á menos que los giros vengan acompañados de los conocimientos y facturas comerciales y consulares (invoices and consular invoices) no los recogeremos.

2. Le remito poder en forma (regular power of attorney) para que V. pueda representarme y hacer mis veces ahí.

3. Cuando me pague lo que me debe veremos lo que proceda hacer (what ought to be done).

4. V. no hace mención en su atenta de los engranajes, conexiones, llantas y resortes de nuestro pedido 2 del que rige, no sea que se haya traspapelado nuestra orden.

6. Aunque es hombre muy difícil de tratar, sus órdenes son muy apetecidas de los fabricantes porque su palabra una vez empenada (pledged) es oro molido (as good as gold).

9. Con tal que el mercado afloje un tantico procuraré plazar su orden para 50 tambores de sosa, á su límite.

10. Con que nuestros contrincantes se porten con lealtad no tenemos derecho de quejarnos de su competencia.

11. Según lo prueba la experiencia más vale ir cautelosos en aquellos mercados.

12. No deseo buscarme molestias ni meterme en camisa de once varas (meddle in other people's business).

15. ¡Calle, hombre! Todos los caminitos van á la plaza (all roads lead to Rome); los españoles son muy aficionados á los refranes.

EXERCISE 2 (60).

3. I cannot say anything before I see the result, but I shall be able to tell you something definite to-morrow.

6. I believe I could buy a parcel of wheat cheaper to-day unless there should be a sudden rise.

8. Although the market here is firm, we have hopes (esperamos) that prices will relax in view of the bearish tone (tendencia á la baja) shown in the Liverpool market yesterday.

9. The enclosed pattern is rather (algo) poor; still, as it appears to sell well in Central Africa, I should be glad if you would see your way (decidirse) to manufacture it at our price.

10. The new presses (prensas) work fairly well; there is, however, room (lugar) for improvement, and our engineer will write you fully on some proposed modifications.

11. He signed the documents without even (siquiera) reading them, so upset was he by the news the mail had just brought him; therefore we shall be obliged if you will kindly send them back for his perusal and return (para que los examine y se los envíe otra vez).

12. Provided you take a lease of these premises (tome en arriendo este local) for a period of ten years, I shall make the necessary alterations, since I am very eager to have you as a tenant.

13. Although the demand for money is no longer so strong, the market is still under the control (dominio) of the Bank of England, to which it is now indebted for (debe) a considerable amount, and dealings are but on a comparatively small scale.

PART II

THE ARTICLE.

The =Definite Article= is used in Spanish and not in English (besides rules given in Lesson II)—

Es la una: It is one o'clock.
Son las dos y cuarto: It is a quarter past two.
Son las tres y cinco: It is five minutes past three.
Son las cuatro menos diez: It is ten minutes to four.
Las cinco y media: Half-past five.

4. Optionally, before the days of the week, especially when preceded by "on" in English, as—

Although found sometimes before the names of countries in general, this example should not be followed.

Carlos I (primero), Charles I (the first)
Alfonso XIII (trece), Alphonso XIII (the thirteenth)

2. In titles of books, headings, etc., as—Historia de la Inquisición (The History of the Inquisition).

3. Before words in apposition, as—Madrid, capital de España (Madrid, the capital of Spain).

Alfonso el Sabio (Alphonso the Wise) Juana la Loca (Jane the Mad) because these are "titles."

The =Indefinite Article= is used in English and not in Spanish (besides rules in Lesson II)—

1. Before words in apposition, as— Rubio y Cía., casa importantísima de la Habana: Rubio & Co., a most important firm in Havana.

2. In titles of books, headings, etc., as— Lista de los géneros pedidos: A list of goods required.

3. In "such a," "so … a," as— Tal amigo: Such a friend. Tan buen amigo: So good a friend, such a good friend.

4. In "a half" (medio), "a quarter" (cuarto), "a third" (tercio), in the case of an integer preceding, as— Uno y medio (1-1/2) Cinco y tercio (penknife/3) Dos y cuarto (2-1/4)

Before weights and measures the definite article is used in Spanish instead of the indefinite used in English, as—

Dos chelines la libra: Two shillings a pound.
Cinco pesetas el metro or por metro: 5 pesetas a metre.

The =Definite Article= is omitted before casa and palacio when they are spoken of as places usually frequented by the person in question—

Iré á casa del ingeniero: I shall go to the engineer's house.
El Rey volvió ayer a palacio: The King returned yesterday to the palace.

The article must not be employed before a noun used after a preposition in an adjectival capacity, as—

The tendency of the Spanish language is to omit the indefinite article whenever, by such omission the sense is not obscure, as—

Tengo intención de marcharme: I have a mind to go.
Vino con dolor de cabeza: He came with a headache.
Le dió cuenta de lo sucedido: He gave him an account of
all that had happened.
Este caballero tiene mucho or grande ingenio: This
gentleman has a great talent.

The =Neuter= article lo cannot precede a noun used as such, but it may (elegantly) precede a noun used adjectively, as—

VOCABULARY.

administrador, manager anteriormente, previously anunciar, to advertise apacible, mild armadura, frame, framing (mach.) atajo, short cut buen éxito, success comprometerse, to undertake edificio, building empresa, undertaking experimentar, to experience grabados (géneros), embossed (goods) hilado, yarn intentar,*tener intención, to intend junto á, coupled with práctico, practical *proponerse, to have in view (á) rayas, striped (goods) recto, straightforward riqueza, wealth sencillo, plain suceder, to succeed, to happen tenedores, holders (of securities, etc.) tratar, to conduct (business) vara, Spanish yard.

EXERCISE 1 (61).

1. Eran las doce y media del domingo antepasado (before last), apacible dia, que, aunque estamos en otoño, parecía mas dia de primavera, la Maria me acompañaba, aquella Señora del Perú que ha viajado tanto en la India y el Japón y cuyo marido y el mio eran tan amigos.

4. Carlos V., Emperador de Alemania es el mismo monarca que reinó en España con el título de Carlos I desde 1517 á 1551.

5. Luis XIV de Francia no tenía sino cinco años de edad cuando sucedió á su padre Luis XIII en 1643.

6. El principio de su reinado fué dirigido por Mazarín, italiano muy fino (shrewd), y astuto conocedor de los hombres.

9. Tan ventajosas condiciones no se hallan en ningunas otras Compañias para el seguro de la vida.

10. Tales administradores, valen un tesoro (are worth their weight in gold); de ellos depende el buen éxito de las empresas.

12. Estos cuadritos y rayas cuestan 45 céntimos el metro, y estos mercerizados y grabados valen 40 céntimos la vara.

14. Es medida española que equivale á =835= milimetros y 9 décimas ó cerca de =33= pulgadas inglesas.

EXERCISE 2 (62).

1. An "iron framing" is a framing made of iron, but a "steam engine" (máquina a vapor) is an engine moved by steam.

2. I had the intention of giving more such examples but I believe one is enough.

3. In the construction of this building the architect had in view both the beautiful and the practical.

4. Yes, see how (cuán) elegant and at the same time how solid these columns are!

5. Business conducted through us (por nuestro medio) is different from the many advertised systems and promised short cuts to wealth which are dangled before the eyes of the (con que se deslumbra al) public.

6. Our plan is a plain (sencillo), straightforward method of operating by which we undertake to implicitly carry out (cumplir con) the instructions of our customers.

8. "Kaffirs" have resorted to (han llegado) a state of idleness (inercia) coupled with steadily (más y más) sagging (aflojados) prices.

9. Holders of spot cotton have again experienced quite a brisk inquiry (una demanda muy activa) from spinners, who have freely (abundantemente) covered forward sales (para sus entregas futuras) of yarn.

10. They also took up large lines (grandes cantidades) of cotton previously contracted for (contratadas).

THE NOUN.

1. The gender of names of countries, provinces, and towns is according to their termination (Lesson III), but those ending in d are generally masculine.

EXCEPTIONS—

3. A masculine article is used with other parts of speech whole sentences used substantively, as—

El que lo haya hecho sin consultarme no puede serme de grande gusto:
That he did it without consulting me is certainly not pleasing to me.

A list of principal exceptions to the rule given on Spanish gender by termination is given in Appendix I.

2. The names of the vowels pluralize in es— Las aes, las ees, las íes, las oes, las úes.

3. Some Latin words used in Spanish, as—Accessit, déficit, fiat, ultimatum, agnus dei, etc., do not change for the plural, except—Album—álbumes.

For other peculiarities of number see Appendix II. Collective nouns in Spanish are generally followed by the verb in the singular, as—La gente piensa: People think.

But after a collective noun, indefinite in its meaning, the verb may follow in the plural, as—Una cantidad de géneros se vendió, or vendieron en subasta: A quantity of goods was or were sold by auction.

Past Part., Puesto. Pres. Indic., Pongo.[174] Imper. Mood, Pon … poned …[175] Past Def., Puse, pusiste, puso, pusimos, pusisteis, pusieron. Future Indic., Pondré, pondras, pondrá, pondremos, pondéis, pondrán.

Pres. Indic., Quiero, quieres, quiere,—,—, quieren. [176] Past Def., Quise, quisiste, quiso, quisimos, quisisteis, quisieron. _Fut. Indic., _Querré, querrás, querrá, querremos, querréis, querrán.

[Footnote 174: Verbs which are irregular in the Pres. Indic. 1st person singular only, have the same irregularity in the present subj. all through.]

[Footnote 175: The 1st person pi. and 3rd pers. sing. and pl. of the
Imperative Mood are taken from the Subj. Mood.]

[Footnote 176: Verbs which in the pres. indic. are irregular in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd pers. sing. and 3rd pers. pl. have the same irregularities in the pres. subj. in the same persons.]

_Pres. Indic., _Sé, . . . _Pres. Subj., _Sepa, sepas, sepa, sepamos, sepáis, sepan. _Past Def., _Supe, supiste, supo, supimos, supisteis, supieron. _Fut. Indic., _Sabré, sabrás, sabrá, sabremos, sabréis, sabrán.

VOCABULARY.

=apuro=, straits, embarrassment =armas blancas=, side arms =armas de fuego=, fire-arms =*atravesar=, to traverse, to cross =campos=, fields =cierre=, lock-out =compensar=, to compensate, to make good =*darse a partido=, to yield, to submit =disturbio=, disturbance =enfurecido, furioso=, furious (enfuriated) =enseñanza=, teaching =*escarmentar=, to take warning =fracaso=, failure =la fuente=, the fountain, source =fuerza motriz=, motive power =fundarse en=, to base upon =huelga=, strike (of workmen) =huerta=, orchard =infinidad (una)=, an infinite number =interior=, interior, inland =limitar=, to confine, to limit =mejorar=, to improve =minero=, miner =obrero=, workman =orillas=, banks of a river =palmera=, date palm =población=, villa, town =póliza de seguro=, insurance policy =prescindir de=, to dispense with =regadío=, irrigation =rieles=, rails =tal cual= (of goods), as they are, as they were =tomar en consideración=, to take into consideration, to entertain =turba=, crowd (motley) =virtualmente=, practically, virtually

EXERCISE 1 (63).

1. La palmera., el pistacho, y la higuera crecen en Andalucía pero los dátiles, los pistachos y los higos que se venden en el mercado inglés provienen principalmente de Berberia, de Grecia y Esmirna (Smyrna).

2. En los recientes disturbios en la provincia de Champaña muchas viñas se han destruido por las turbas enfurecidas.

3. Explíqueme V. el cómo y el cuando del asunto (all about the affair) y luego (then) considerare yo el pro y el contra.

5. La industria del hierro es una de las principales fuentes de riqueza del Reino Unido.

6. Las máquinas de toda especie, los buques de vapor, los rieles de ferrocarriles, las herramientas mecánicas y agrícolas, las armas blancas y de fuego y una infinidad de otros objetos se deben á esa industria.

7. En el norte de Espana, especialmente en Bilbao se trabaja el hierro en grande escala.

8. El río que atraviesa dicha población presta (gives) fuerza motriz á varias fábricas situadas en sus orillas, y sirve también al regadío de los campos y huertas.

9. Escarmentados por el fracaso de la huelga de los mineros, los obreros hiladores se dieron á partido admitiendo las condiciones ofrecidas por los patronos, evitando así el cierre.

10. Patronos y obreros deberían trabajar armoniosamente y fundados en la justicia; el capital y el trabajo no pueden prescindir el uno del otro.

EXERCISE 2 (64).

2. People are apt to forget (se olvida facilmente de) the teachings of history (historia).

4. I put it as a condition that the bills be drawn against delivery of B/L and insurance policy.

11. The Directors are not in the least (absolutamente) disposed to launch upon (lanzarse a) a large foreign trade, so that the operations of the concern (compañía or casa) remain confined practically to the inland market.

12. We received a claim on our last shipment but we refused to (rehusamos de) entertain it as the goods were jobs (géneros imperfectos) and were sold as they were with all faults (imperfecciones).

13. We are sorry our customers should have suffered any loss, but we cannot make it good, and we shall stand our ground (insistiremos en eso).

AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE TERMINATIONS

[Footnote 177: Feminine nouns, however, generally take =on= and become masculine, as—

Denote diminution (to which an idea of endearment is always attached which is natural in Spanish when speaking of little objects in the ordinary way.)

If for any reason disparagement or insignificance is suggested then illo, illa, uelo, uela, are used instead.

Other terminations less used are azo, acho, onazo, achón, ote, astro, aco, and a few others (augmentative, suggesting (generally) disparagement); ete, in, ino, itito, itico, itillo, and a few others (diminutive). If a noun ends in a vowel, this is elided[178] before adding the termination.

[Footnote 178: If a noun ends in n (except proper names like "Juan") or r, ito, ico, illo, uelo, change into =cito, cico, cillo, zuelo=. If a noun of one syllable ends in a consonant, or a noun of two syllables ends in e or ío, or contains a diphthong, ito, ico, etc., change into =ecito, ecico=, etc. If a noun of one syllable ends in a vowel, ito, ico, etc., become =ececito, ececico=, etc. Other slight changes occur also.]

The Augmentative and Diminutive terminations have no determinate meaning: they are vague and indefinite and consequently when preciseness is required we must use the adjectives "grande," "pequeño," etc. (which can be employed conjointly with the terminations), as—

Me dió dos librones gruesos y tres libritos delgados: He gave me two heavy big books and three small ones.

Students should use the terminations on and ito but no others until they become familiar with them with reading, as they cannot be used indiscriminately with all nouns.

The termination azo serves also to indicate an injury or explosion from a weapon, as—

Un sablazo (a sabre-cut)
Un puñetazo (a blow with the fist)
Un navajazo (a stab with a knife)
Un cañonazo (a cannon-shot)

Pres. Part., Trayendo (i unstressed between two vowels always changes into y). Pres. Indic., Traigo. Past Def., Traje, trajiste, trajo, trajimos, trajisteis, trajeron.

VOCABULARY.

=actitud=, actitude =agiotista=, stock-jobber =alejarse=, to go away =aludir á=, to allude, to hint =apurado de dinero=, short of money =apurar=, to purify, to exhaust =calcular=, to calculate, to reckon =callar=, to keep silent, to omit speaking =cambiar=, to change, to alter =consignar=, to consign, to record =contrato social=, articles of partnership =cordobán=, morocco leather =despacio=, slowly =despreciable=, despicable =dinero efectivo=, cash =discutir=, to discuss =especulación=, speculation, venture =garrote=, cudgel, stick =*impedir=, to hinder, to preclude =ladrón=, thief =(el) matiz=, shade =*mover=, to move, to actuate =mozalbete=, beardless youth =*quebrantamiento=, breakage, break down =reflejo=, reflection =*seguir=, to pursue =sin ton ni son=, without rhyme or reason =sombrero de copa=, silk hat =vejete=, diminutive old man =vocablo=, vocable, word

EXERCISE 1 (65).

1. El agiotista que V. ve allí, aquel hombrón con el sombrerote de copa, ha hecho un fortunazo en sus especulaciones bursátiles (stock exchange speculations).

2. Aquel vejete que le acompaña con ese mozalbete su hijo me ha vendido una partidilla de Cordobán muy baratita.

3. Librazo, libraco, librote, libracho son todos variaciones de "libro," como también librito, librillo, libreto, librete, libretín, librejo que son sus formas diminutivas.

4. Libreta es diminutive de "libra"; se usa también por pan de una libra; "libreto" es el de una ópera; el cuadernito de papel de fumar es "librillo."

5. Estas graduaciones ó matices del sentido se deben aprender con la práctica y se deben usar naturalmente sin afectación como reflejo del profundo conocimiento de la lengua, y no copiados de un diccionario "sin ton ni son" como se dice en español.

6. Por ejemplo, "librazo, libracho, y librote" se refieren más al aspecto del libro. "Libracos" mas a los despreciables por su contenido.

7. También se debe notar que algunas terminaciones convienen á ciertos vocablos y á otros no, por ejemplo hay "libraco" y "pajarraco" pero esta terminación no puede tomarla el sustantivo "hombre."

8. En fin con lo dicho y con lo consignado en el apéndice IV el estudiante tiene bastante por ahora.

9. Con la República en Portugal acabadita de proclamar, nos vemos apuradillos de dinero pues los clientes portugueses van despacito en sus remesas.

11. Cuchilladas, pistolazos, revolveradas, y aún garrotazos son raros en Inglaterra; el Inglés se bate a puñetazo limpio (with his fist) cuando es de la hampa (a rough), y cuando es caballero no se bate aunque si llega el caso es muy capaz de dar muy buena cuenta de sí.

EXERCISE 2 (66).

1. If you cannot command (no puede disponer de) cash, we shall have to alter our price lists as our prices will have to be reckoned on a different basis; they will be a little dearer.

2. I am bound to say that there is some very strong opinion on this side (de este lado) against the course your Government intends to pursue in the matter.

3. The situation has been complicated by the breakdown of the arrangement we had made with our carriers (agentes de transporte).

4. I believe that the reason actuating Mr. Melero's attitude (mueve al Sr. M. en su) towards us, a reason which he hinted more than once in his correspondence, is that his articles of partnership with his friends in Rosario preclude him from entertaining (tomar en consideración) any new ventures.

5. At the monthly meeting of the Council of the Chamber of Commerce (Consejo de la Cámara de Comercio) the Japanese tariff was discussed on a (tras) communication from the Board of Trade ("Board of Trade," Ministerio de Comercio).

THE ADJECTIVE.

Un hombre ciego: A blind man.
Una mesa redonda: A round table.
Paño negro: Black cloth.

The above rule is subject to many exceptions for the sake of euphony or to give more than the ordinary prominence to the adjective or the noun; however, the following rule will be found a reliable general one, and it is in fact the informing principle of all special rules given in the various grammars—

An adjective used as an epithet should precede the noun; if used as a distinguishing word it should follow.

By an adjective used as an epithet, we mean one calling to mind a quality known (or supposed) to belong to the noun, as—

No perdió el aliento el valiente general: The brave general did not lose courage.

By a distinguishing word we mean one used to indicate the quality of a noun as compared with another of the same species, as—

The Partitive Adjectives "some" and "any" are left out in translation when they do not convey the idea of limited quantity. When they do, "algún," "un poco de" (sing.), "algunos" and "unos" (pl.) are used.

"Un poco de" and "unos" convey the idea of a more limited quantity or number than "alguno" and "algunos."

The following few examples are calculated to make it clear as regards the various shades of meaning—

He recibido algunos cigarros, le reservaré unas cajas de los mejores: I received some cigars; I shall reserve for you some boxes of the best quality.

One adjective preceding two or more nouns agrees in gender and number with the first only, as—

La nueva caldera y accesorios gustó (or gustaron) mucho al cliente:
The new boiler and accessories pleased the customer very much.

N.B.—If a verb intervenes the adjective is generally plural, and in case of different genders is pl. masc., as—

Adjuntos remitimos factura y conocimiento: Enclosed we send invoice and bill of lading.

El encaje y las guarniciones han salido caros: The lace and trimmings came out dear.

EXCEPTION—

When all the several nouns preceding the adjective are in the plural, and all referring to things (not persons), the adjective may be made to agree in gender with the noun last mentioned, as—

Los tornillos y las tuercas están bien ajustados (or ajustadas): The screws and nuts are well adjusted. It is better to avoid this construction

(2) By using an adjective having the same termination for masculine and feminine.

Adjectives that qualify the fem. nada (nothing) are always used in the masculine—

Adjectives referring to titles of individuals are placed in the gender of the persons bearing those titles, as—

V. (contraction of Vuestra Merced) es muy buen amigo: You are a very good friend.

Adjectives of colour derived from a noun, as "violeta" (violet), "rosa" (pink), "chocolate" (chocolate), etc., do not take the mark of the plural, the words "color de" being understood before them, as—

Pres. Indic., Valgo. Fut. Indic., Valdré, valdrás, valdrá, valdremos, valdréis, valdrán. Imper. Mood, Val or vale….

VOCABULARY.

=aceite=, oil =aflojar=, to slacken =ajuste de averia=, average adjustment =almacenes fiscales=, bonded ware houses =carne en salmuera=, pickled beef =comarca=, region =conceder=, to grant, to allow =cosecha=, crop, harvest =cueros=, hides =exiguo=, small, insignificant, slender =incluir=, to include, to enclose =incluso=, included =incluyendo=, including =íntegro=, upright, integer, whole =interino=, interim =juicioso=, sensible =linones, olanes=, lawns =manteca de puerco, lardo=, lard =pieles=, skins =productos accesorios=, by-products =sebo=, tallow =tarjeta=, card =tasajo=, jerked beef =tierno=, tender =viajante=, commercial traveller[179]

EXERCISE 1 (67).

1. Benéficas lluvias han caído en toda la comarca, y las tiernas plantas prometen abundante cosecha si siguen favorables las condiciones climatológicas (climatic).

2. Las compras baratas no resultan siempre lo que se llama "gangas" (bargains) pues es necesario también que sean de calidad conveniente y adecuada para el mercado á que se las destine.

3. He recibido una consignación de carne en salmuera, lenguas en latas (canned tongues), tasajo, sebo, margarina, manteca de puerco (or lardo), y productos accesorios que espero poder colocar bien.

4. Me enviaron también un poco de aceite de margarina, heces de sebo (tallow greaves), hueso molido (bone-meal) y tripas de buey (ox casings) baratas.

9. Ha entrado mucho té este mes en los almacenes fiscales y además algún café de Costa Rica.

10. La magnífica colección de muestras y tarjetas para reclamo (advertisement) que nos trajo ese viajante nos han gustado muchísimo.

11. El ajuste de avería y el cheque por la indemnización concedida van inclusos.

15. Le tomaré algunas piezas de prueba de estos linones rosa y crema pero nada de estos estampados chocolate.

EXERCISE 2 (68).

1. We have to acknowledge the receipt of your esteemed letter of the 1st inst., which brought us £640 on L. & Sons, payable August 10th.

5. The Directors of the Z Company announce an interim (provisorio) dividend for the first six months of the current year at the rate of 10 per cent. per annum.

6. Reuter's Paris correspondent telegraphs that earnest representations are being made by the British Chamber of Commerce in Paris to the French Customs Administration (Administración de Aduanas) concerning the recent change in the classification of yarns wound on bobbins (en bobinas), a matter which seriously affects Lancashire interests.

7. The great object (objeto principal) the meeting had in view was the promotion of further (el abrir nuevas vías al) progress and (y á la) civilisation. That necessarily implied fewer appeals to the arbitrament of the sword (que deberían disminuir los casos de apelar á la espada) and (y ser) more frequent appeals to the remedy of reason.

"As … as" and "so … as" are translated "tan … como," "as much … as" and "so much … as" are translated "tanto-a,-os-as … como" or "cuanto."

Tan razonable en precio cuan apreciado por la buena calidad: As reasonable in price as it is appreciated for its good quality.

"The more … the more" is translated "cuanto más … tanto más"; also "más … más" (without the article).

Sedas floreadas italianas que no las hay mejores en el mercado: Italian flowered silks, than which there are no better on the market.

Adjectives ending in io (not ío) drop the whole diphthong before adding ísimo, as—

The irregular superlatives óptimo, pésimo, máximo, mínimo, ínfimo and supremo are used very sparingly, but they are found both as superlative absolute and superlative relative, as—

[Footnote 181: Although improperly, we often find "más mínimo" (más ínfimo, etc.).]

El supremo bien de la vida es hacer á otros felices: The highest blessing of life is to make others happy.

The expressions "a larger building," "a higher tree," etc., are generally rendered "un edificio más grande," "un árbol más alto," etc.

Acre (sour) Acérrimo
Amigo (friendly) Amicísimo
Antiguo (ancient) Antiquísimo
Áspero (harsh) Aspérrimo
Benéfico (beneficent) Beneficentísimo
Benévolo (benevolent) Benevolentísimo
Célebre (celebrated) Celebérrimo
Fiel (faithful) Fidelísimo
Íntegro (upright) Integérrimo
Libre (free), Libérrimo
Magnífico (magnificent) Magnificentísimo
Mísero (miserable) Misérrimo
Munífico (munificent) Munificentísimo
Pobre (poor), Paupérrimo, and Pobrísimo (more used)
Sabio (wise) Sapientísimo
Sagrado (holy) Sacratísimo
Salubre (healthy) Salubérrimo
Simple (simple) Simplicísimo
—Ubérrimo (most fruitful)

Some of the best modern authors write "buenísimo," "nuevísimo," etc., regularly without substituting the diphthong by the pure vowel, as "bonísimo," "novísimo," notwithstanding the shifting of the stress.[182]

Es tan caballero or más caballero que sus contrincantes: He is as (or more) gentlemanly as (than) his neighbours (competitors).

"Than" followed by a number, unless the sentence be negative, is translated by de.

Hablar Español es más difícil que escribirlo: To speak Spanish is more difficult than to write it.

Esta tela cuesta cinco peniques menos la yarda: This cloth is cheaper by five pence a yard.

Es tan poderoso que domina el mercado: He is so powerful as to control the market.

[Footnote 183: It forms the pres. subj., Vea, veas, etc. Imperf. Indic., Veía, veías, veía, veíamos, veíais, veían.]

VOCABULARY.

=acaudalado=, rich, wealthy =*advertir=, to notice =alcalde=, mayor =alfombrada=, carpeting =añadir=, to add =apagarse=, to go out (fire) =atraicionar=, to betray =boticario=, chemist =caja fuerte=, safe =calorífero=, stove =carbón (de piedra)=, coal =carbón (vegetal)=, charcoal =carpeta=, writing-pad =casillero=, pigeon-holes =certificar=, to certify, to register (in the post) =chimenea=, chimney =contestar=, to answer =echar al correro=, to post =ensartar=, to string (beads), to file (papers) =escaño=, stool =estante=, book-shelf =franqueo=, postage =guardafuego=, fender =guardapapeles, ensartapapeles=, paper files =humear=, to smoke (chimney) =lacre=, sealing wax =legajo=, bundle (of papers) =librarse=, to get rid of =mano de papel secante=, quire of blotting-paper =pupitre=, writing desk =sello=, seal =el sobre=, the envelope =sujeta papeles=, paper fasteners

EXERCISE 1 (69).

1. La casa de Rioja a y Cía. es tan respetable por su buena fama (name) como por lo acaudalados que son sus propietarios.

4. Es muy rica en efecto, pero no creo que su capital ascienda á más que £100,000.

5. Cuanto más corriente en sus tratos es un negociante, tanto mejor le resultan sus transacciones.

7. Tenemos un campo (field) amplísimo para nuestras operaciones, las cuales hasta aquí han tenido felicísimo resultado.

9. Es de interés supremo para nosotros el dar los mejores productos á precios mínimos.

12. La ciudad de Cádiz es antiquísima; fundóse en el siglo XV antes de la era vulgar por los Fenicios.

14. Fidelísimo criado, no quiso atraicionar á su amo que había sido beneficentísimo para con él.

EXERCISE 2 (70).

3. Will you put all those answered letters in that shelf; You will find the pigeon-holes alphabetically arranged, put each letter in the proper bundle.

6. Now give me a quire of blotting-paper, pens, nibs (puntitas), paper-fasteners and the stamp-rack (porta-estampillas).

9. See to the (hacer atención al) fire, it is going out, poke it (removerlo) a little and add some coal.

10. This is the coal scuttle (caja del carbón), the shovel (la pala) and the poker (atizador) are near the fender.

12. Yes, our chimney always smokes; it is a nuisance (¡que fastidio! ¡que barbaridad!).

13. Post these letters. Stamp them (póngales los sellos) and notice there are some to be registered (para certificar).

15. If any weigh in excess (demasiado), it does not matter (no importa); put the excess postage.

If it precedes it may drop the final syllable. When grande (or gran) precedes it generally refers more to quality than to size, but this rule is not strict at all, as much is left to the tone of the voice and also to gesture.

When "Santo" means "holy" it is always written in full.
When "Santo" means "saint" it drops the "to" before the name following.

EXCEPTIONS—

Some adjectives alter their meaning according as they precede or follow a noun, as—

Cierto hombre: A certain man. (Not "un cierto.")
Una noticia cierta: A certain (sure) news.

Un pobre escritor: A poor writer—of little worth.
Un escritor pobre: An impecunious writer.

Un simple soldado: A simple (plain) soldier.
Un hombre simple: A simple man, a simpleton.

"One" and "ones" after an adjective are always left untranslated. "Man" and "woman" in the majority of cases are also omitted, as—

Tengo algunos buenos: I have some good ones.
Un francés, una francesa: A Frenchman, a Frenchwoman.

Una plataforma de 30 pies de largo y seis pies de ancho (also de 30 pies por seis): A platform 30 feet long by six feet wide.

Es el negociante más próspero de la ciudad: He is the most successful merchant in the city.

El doble (the double)
El triple (3 fold)
El cuádruplo (4 fold)
El quíntuple (5 fold)
El séxtuple (6 fold)
El décuplo (10 fold)
El céntuplo (100 fold)
Siete veces tanto (7 fold)
Ocho veces tanto (8 fold). Etc., etc.

The adjective is used also adverbially, oftener in Spanish than in
English, as—

Exclamó ufano, cortés, enfadado, bondadoso: He proudly, courteously, angrily, kindly exclaimed.

Adjectives have a governing power through a preposition and then the preposition to be used belongs to the "idiom" of the language. Practice will make perfect.

The following are some examples in which the construction differs from the English—

Afable á, or con, or para con todos: Affable to all.
Agradecido á los beneficios: Grateful for the favours.
Agudo de ingenio: Sharp-witted.
Ajeno de la verdad: Foreign to truth.
Alegre de cascos: Light-headed.
Blanco de tez: fair-complexioned.
Cargado de espaldas: Round-shouldered.
Codicioso, deseoso de dinero: Greedy, wishing for money.
Cercano á su fin: Nearing his end.
¡Desdichado de mí!: Unhappy me!
Difícil de comprender: Hard to understand.
Dotado de buenas partes: Endowed with good parts.
Duro de cabeza (de mollera), de corazón: Hard-headed, hard-hearted.
Evidente para todo el mundo: Evident to all.
Fácil de explicar: Easy to explain.
Falto de juicio: Lacking in judgment.
Hermoso de ver: Beautiful to see.
Lleno de cerveza, de vino: Full of (or with) beer, wine.
Mayor or Menor de edad: Of age, under age.
Pequeño de tamano: Small in size.
Rico de virtudes: Rich in virtues.
Seco (enjuto) de carnes: Spare in flesh.
Sorprendido de la noticia: Surprised at the news.
Tardo á comprender: Slow in understanding.
Triste de aspecto: Sad in countenance.

VOCABULARY.

=á la par=, at the same time =las Antillas=, the West Indies =atropellar por=, to infringe, to trample upon, also to run down (vehicles, etc.) =blando=, gentle, soft =chaconada=, jacconet =ciencia=, science, wisdom =corto=, short, brief =desarme=, disarmament =deseoso=, wishful, eager =dique=, dock =doctrina=, doctrine, knowledge =equivocarse=, to make a mistake =fletar=, to freight, to charter =forros estampados=, printed linings =hidalguía=, chivalry, nobleness, gentlemanly principles =imponerse á=, to command =inconveniencia=, unsuitability, impropriety =el inconveniente=, inconvenience =ladrillos refractarios=, firebricks =lástima=, pity, compassion =nivel=, level =principal=, principal, chief, leading =quejarse (de)=, to complain =responsable=, responsible =rizados, crespolinas=, crimps =tío=, uncle, also a coarse fellow[184] *=tropezar=, to stumble =ufano=, proud, full of dignity =velero=, sailing vessel, sailer

EXERCISE 1 (71).

1. Gran lastima es, si lastima grande que las grandes naciones no se pongan de acuerdo para proclamar el desarme general.

3. Aun los racionalistas respetan a este Santo como también a la profunda doctrina de Santo Tom as de Aquino.

5. Es cosa cierta que la virtud puede ser patrimonio del hombre pobre como del rico.

6. Pobre excusa seria el pretender haberlo hecho por un simple favor pues esto no convencería a los hombres más simples.

7. El hombre más sabio del mundo puede equivocarse alguna vez, llegue á donde llegare su ciencia (however great, etc.)

8. Si V. me diera el doble, el triple, el quintuple, y aun seis, diez ó cien veces tanto, no cometería esa indelicadeza, atropellando por las leyes de la hidalguía y del honor.

9. El orador habla claro, metafórico, alto, bajo, fuerte, y blando según lo exija el argumento y las circunstancias pero se le demanda que tenga por bianco (to have for his aim) la virtud y el progreso.

10. Ande V. derecho y tenga fuerte que no vaya (lest you) á tropezar y á caerse.

13. Los estudiantes más agudos de ingenio son á veces un tantico alegres de cascos.

14. No importa (never mind), son todos deseosos de aprender y afables con su profesor que además de ser cojo de un pie ya está cercano á su fin.

EXERCISE 2 (72).

1. We are open (dispuestos) to charter a small steamer or a sailing vessel for St. Thomas in the West Indies.

4. These warehouses are 30' long, 20' wide (de ancho) and 15 feet high (de alto).

5. Some are built with stone and mortar (son de mampostería), others with firebricks, and they are the best in the docks.

6. Last week nothing was doing (no se hacía) on 'Change, but' to-day leading operators are distinctly bullish (trabajan distintamente por la alza) and have acquired a further large holding (y se han afianzado mucho más), being more convinced than ever that prices will climb[185] (subirán) to a much higher level.

7. Meanwhile the market is getting dangerously overbought (el exceso de compras en el mercado se hace peligroso).

8. He gave me too short a notice (aviso) and the consequence was 20 bales were short shipped (no se expidieron).

9. He now complains of being short of (que le faltan) printed linings, jacconets and crimps, also of short measure (de falta de medida) in some of the cloth invoiced.

12. Our correspondents are short-staffed (no tienen bastante personal), hence their delaying often to send out (y por tanto a menudo retardan el envío de) our invoices, which is a great inconvenience.

THE PRONOUN.

The pronouns Nos and Vos are used for the 1st and 2nd person singular, respectively, in poetry and high-flown prose.

Nos is used in Royal decrees; and Vos often to translate the French "vous" and English "you" in novels. They require the verb in the plural and any occurring adjective in the singular, masculine or feminine according to the sex represented—

A subject pronoun following "to be" and preceding a relative may be followed by a verb in the 1st or 3rd person, as—

Two or more personal pronouns used as subjects of one verb require the verb in the plural, and in the 1st person in preference to the 2nd and 3rd, and 2nd in preference to 3rd, as—

A conjunctive pronoun should precede the verb in the Indic. Cond. and Subj. moods, but with the verb in the Indic. or Cond. mood a great latitude is allowed for the sake of euphony or emphasis. The principal idea is to give thereby more prominence to the verb, as—

Entreguéle los bultos, acordéle toda facilidad para el pago y quise acabarlo todo amistosamente.

The conjunctive pronouns lo, le, are both used for "him," "it" (m.), (direct object); the second is more generally used for a person, but no distinction is strictly observed.

The conjunctive dative (indirect object) should be le for both genders (sing.). La instead of le for the feminine is however permissible and is used by the best writers.

Les instead of los is often found in the accusative (direct object), masculine plural, but this should not be imitated.

When a conjunctive pers. pronoun follows the verb, the subject pronoun must also follow, as—

Otherwise the position of the subject pronoun in relation to the verb is very arbitrary, the general practice being, of course, to put it before unless the sentence is interrogative.

The conj. pronouns nos and os following a verb in the Imperative mood require the elision of the s and d termination of the verb, as—

Conjunctive pronouns are used to substitute the possessive adjective before parts of the body or articles of dress, as—

Me han impuesto una multa sobre los géneros: They have inflicted a fine on my goods.

And in all similar cases when by doing this the possessive may be avoided without creating confusion.

Castígueme este muchacho para que aprenda: Punish this boy (for me) so that he may learn.

This "ethical dative" shows the person _interested in the action. Its use is much more frequent in Spanish than in English.

Pres. Subj., Conduzca, conduzcas, conduzca, conduzcamos, conduzcáis, conduzcan.

Past Def., Conduje, condujiste, condujo, condujimos, condujisteis, condujeron.[186]

VOCABULARY.

=abordar=, to board, to accost, to approach =*abrir agua=, to spring a leak =ajeno=, belonging to others, outward *=andar en cuestiones=, to dispute =barrica=, cask =cabo=, corporal =¿cómo no?= yes, of course I will *=cubrir (p.p. cubierto)=, to cover *=dar dos pasos=, to take a stroll *=dar la lengua=, to chat, to parley =despejar=, to clear =devanarse los sesos=, to rack one's brains =difunto=, late, deceased =estallar=, to burst, to explode, to break out =formal=, formal, respectable *=ir repitiendo, etc=., to keep repeating, etc. =jefe del despacho=, manager =llevarse bien=, to get on well together =lograr=, to contrive, to attain =machacar=, to hammer, to insist =mandato=, order, injunction =melindroso=, squeamish, very particular =multa=, fine, penalty =Noruego=, Norwegian =peligro=, danger =remolcar=, to tow =sacar en limpio=, to make out ¡=santo y bueno=! that is all very well =sargento=, sergeant =transportar=, to transport, to convey =tul bordado=, embroidered tulle =vender gato por liebre=, to cheat ¡=vaya=! come (exclam.)

EXERCISE 1 (73)

6. Á mi no me cuente para nada (do not take me into account), valdríale mejor verse con (see) el jefe del despacho.

8. No le conozco, V. se hace cargo (you understand) que me resulta dificultoso el abordarle, y lo mismo da (it is the same) hablar con V.

9. V. se equivoca, va mucho de Pedro á Pedro (there is a great difference between the two) y en cuanto á su timidez no sea V. melindroso y tenga presente que el que no se atreve no pasa la mar (nothing venture, nothing have).

10. Para no andar en más cuestiones seguiré su mandato (I shall do as you tell me).

12. Me devané los sesos procurando sacar en limpio lo que quería decir la carta pero no me fué posible y dí al diablo con el hato y el garabato (I gave up the whole confounded thing) como se suele decir.

14. Sr. Juan, V. machaca desde muchos días sobre que le debo dar alguna orden á Don José, pues para darles gusto á ambos salúdemele V. mucho (give him my kind regards), en su primera carta y dígale que me envíe luego 500 piezas de tul bordado repetición de mi pedido anterior, mismos matices.

EXERCISE 2 (74).

3. Have you made it clear (lo ha explicado claramente) that the risk will be covered whether the casks travel by steamer or other conveyance (medio de trasporte)?

4. Our agent contrived to get the fine refunded (hacerse refundir); he wrote us so.

5. The vessel sprang a leak and was in danger but she spoke (habló con la bocina á) a Norwegian steamer, who gave her assistance and towed her to (al) Havre.

7. Put him in the way (muéstrele V. el modo) of conducting his business without depending on (de) outward assistance.

9. Had I feared he would not conduct his own affairs properly (bien) I should not have financed (comanditado) him.

13. If you wish me to do business with your goodselves (su estimada casa) you must put me on (concederme) the best possible terms.

15. Mr. Núñez was dreadfully put out (terriblemente desconcertado) by the news that the revolution had broken out in Ecuador.

Such expressions as "I did it myself," "You write it yourself," "we spoke to him himself," are translated "Yo mismo lo hice," "V. mismo lo escribe," "Le hablamos á él mismo."

Notice the following idiomatic uses of Lo, La, Los, Las with the verbs haber and hacer—

¿Hay pasividades? Are there any liabilities?—Sí, las hay: Yes, there are some.

¿Hace falta escribir? Is it necessary to write?—La hace, mucho: Yes, very necessary.

In the case of two verbs governing each other as "ir á ver" (to go and see), "mandar hacer" (to have made), etc., a conjunctive pronoun, occurring, may be taken by either verb, as—

An object pronoun after a preposition may often be either ordinary or reflexive as in English, as—

Los abogados han zanjado el asunto entre sí or entre ellos: The lawyers compromised the matter amongst themselves (or them).

Of course él, ella, ellos, ellas, cannot be used with reference to
"V." "Vs."—

Vs. lo han arreglado entre sí or entre Vs. (but not entre ellos):
You have arranged it between yourselves.

The English expressions "I have not seen him these three months," etc., should be translated "Hace or ha tres meses que no le veo," "Hace or ha tres meses que no le he visto," "No le he visto (or no le veo) desde hace tres meses," "Hace (or ha) tres meses desde que le ví la última vez."

"I have been writing these three hours," is translated "Hace tres horas que escribo (estoy escribiendo)," "Escribo" (estoy escribiendo) desde hace tres horas.

Cuyo in reality a relative possessive pronoun is often used as a pure relative instead of el cual followed by a noun, as—

The correct grammatical construction would be "el cual cliente"; but however much some grammarians disclaim this employment of cuyo, it is in the language and found in the best books and therefore must be accepted.

The Indefinite Pronouns algo and nada followed by an adjective, generally (but not necessarily) take =de= before the adjective, as—

Tengo algo (de) bueno: I have something good.
No tengo nada (de) bueno: I have nothing good.

[Footnote 187: "Morir" is conjugated like "dormir," but has its past part. "muerto." N.B.—"Muerto" is also a double form of the past part. of "matar" (to kill), as—Le han muerto: They have killed him.]

VOCABULARY.

=adeudar=, to debit, to pay (duty) =atrasado=, in arrears, behind =ce por be=, with all particulars, minutely =chapas=, plates *=contar=, to count, to relate =discreto=, sensible, judicious, discreet =dispensar=, to excuse =echar á perder=, to spoil, to wreck =empeoramiento=, turn for the worse *=estar en poco de=, to be within an inch of =grano de anis=, a trifling matter *=hacer de las suyas=, to play one's pranks *=hacer el obsequio=, to do the favour =informe=, report =mandar buscar=, to send for =obligar=, to compel *=obtener=, to obtain, to bring about =pesado=, heavy =quehaceres=, occupations, business =reglamento=, regulation, bye-laws =remesa=, remittance, shipment =revista=, review =rodajas (de goma)=, rubber heels (revolving) =tacones (de goma)=, rubber heels (shaped) =taller=, workshop =tonto=, simpleton, foolish =tornillos=, screws

EXERCISE 1 (75).

1. Yo mismo escribo al Sr. Mendoza para decirle que puede hacer sus pedidos á Vs. directamente pues, por mi parte no tengo inconveniente en que así se haga.

3. Sí, la hace, y les ruego tengan la bondad de decírmelo á fin de poner á Vs. en conocimiento de las condiciones en que deben hacerse las remesas, etc.

8. Nuestro agente y los corresponsales arreglarán esto entre ellos (or entre sí).

9. Hace tres meses que no recibimos las revistas semanales de ese mercado, las hemos pedido continuamente y siempre en balde.

10. Nuestros aduaneros cobran todo el peso (charge full weight) por sus tacones y rodajas como si fuera goma solamente siendo así que vienen juntos con sus chapas y tornillos, cuyos hierros, claro es, no debían (deberían) adeudar el mismo derecho.

11. No sucedió nada de extraordinario para justificar su acción que en poco estuvo de echarlo todo á perder.

12. Hágame V. el obsequio de contármelo todo, pues no es ningún grano de anís.

15. Es V. muy dueño, pero acuérdese V. que primero los quehaceres y después los placeres.

EXERCISE 2 (76).

1. I regret having left the newspapers at the workshop, but I shall send for them.

2. He regretted the turn for the worse in the market which compelled him to request us to ask our friend for a guarantee.

4. They have been asleep for many years but now they are wide awake (se han despertado bien) to the necessity of adopting up-to-date methods (modernos, á la altura de los tiempos) and adapting themselves to the requirements of the consumers.

5. Manufacturers are selling every day but usually (generalmente) in small lots.

7. Dhooties (dhooties) and jacconets are now so well sold that producers (productores) will only book (aceptan órdenes) at good prices.

8. Heavy textiles (telas) are too stiff for general attention (demasiado firmes para atraer á los compradores) but makers are not hungry for (ansiosos de obtener) orders.

10. Will you set the books on that shelf (estante) and set (colocar) those papers in order?

14. Setting aside the (prescindiendo del) fact that he is behind with his payments, he does us great harm by running down (desacreditando) our goods.

17. A movement has been set on foot (iniciado) to bring about the revision of the bye-laws.

THE VERB.

All intransitive verbs in Spanish are conjugated with the auxiliary verb haber, as—

N.B.—Many such verbs, however, may preserve the preposition even before a finite mood, as—

When the subject of a verb is a collective noun, the verb is placed in the singular (see Lesson XXXII for exception).

When a compound subject follows the verb, this may agree in number and person with the first subject only, as—

Nos ha llegado la circular y los impresos que la acompañaban: We received the circular and the printed matter which accompanied it.

The ambiguity between a Reflexive verb plural and a Reciprocal verb is avoided thus—

Se comprometen el uno al ótro, or los unos á los otros: They commit each other.

A Reflexive verb is that in which the second pronoun of the same person as the subject, is the direct object of the action, as—

But when the second pronoun stands for the indirect object, the verb is only intransitive pronominal, as—

The Passive voice formed with ser occurs much less in Spanish than in
English.

When the "doer" is not expressed the active voice with se generally takes its place, as—

The English present participle used substantively is rendered in Spanish by a noun or by the infinitive mood of the verb generally preceded by the definite article, as—

El cambio de las condiciones: The changing of the terms.
El cambiar las condiciones: The changing of the terms.

Su comunicación á las autoridades de la Aduana,
El escribir or el haber escrito él á las autoridades de la Aduana:
His writing to the custom-house authorities.

El vender á crédito á largos plazos no es un principio sano:
Selling on credit with long terms is not a sound practice.

Prefiero comprar disponible (or las compras de disponible):
I prefer spot buying.

=_The English gerund following "by" is translated by the gerund without preposition or by the infinitive preceded by con, as—_=

Depositando (or con depositar) sus acciones se puso en perfecta regla:
By depositing his shares, he put himself in order.

The Spanish verbal forms ending in ante and iente, as: Amante (lover), tratante (dealer), dependiente (clerk), etc., used to be termed "present participles," and the analogous forms "amando" (loving), "tratando" (treating), "dependiendo" (depending), etc., "gerunds," but this has now taken the place of both forms, used as verbs, and the forms in ante and iente are classed as other parts of speech, according to their meaning, as—

Amante de la música (adj.): Fond of music.
Un tratante en trigos (noun): A dealer in wheat.
Un dependiente de comercio (noun): A commercial clerk.
Durante la exposicion (prep.): During the exhibition.
Mediante su ayuda (prep.): By means of his help.
No obstante que vino (conj.): Notwithstanding his coming.
¡Corriente! (interj.): All right! done!

Pres. Indic., Huyo, huyes, huye … huyen. Pres. Subj., Huya, huyas, huya, huyamos, huyáis, huyan.

VOCABULARY.

=acabado=, finish (cloth) =acudir=, to have recourse, to attend, to run to =á las claras=, plainly, clearly =apresto=, size, also finish (cloth) =aprovecharse=, to take advantage =bomba de doble efecto=, double-acting pump =burlarse=, to make fun of, to trifle with =chucherías=, pretty trifles *=convenir en=, to agree to =engañifas=, tricks =escandaloso=, scandalous, shocking =granjearse=, to win over *=hacer ver=, to show *=herir=, to wound, to cut (fig.) =mediar=, to come between, to intervene, to take place in the meantime *=no tener pelo de tonto=, not to be a simpleton =quitar=, to take away *=reducir á un mínimo=, to reduce to a minimum, to minimise *=saber á punto fijo=, to know for certain =sospechar=, to suspect =suave=, soft, mellow, gentle =subsanar=, to correct, to rectify =tacto=, feel (n.), touch (n.) =voluntad=, will, goodwill, favour

EXERCISE 1 (77).

2. Me hace regalos de algunas chucherías para granjearse mi voluntad y aprovecharse después.

4. Mediaron algunas cosillas que me han hecho sospechar algo de eso y de mí nadie se burla.

6. Estas hermosas calderas de alta presión las han construido en Inglaterra y estas bombas de doble efecto las han importado de los Estados Unidos.

7. El conceder él mayores facilidades á los compradores le ha hecho conseguir una extensa clientela.

8. Con uniformarse á mis disposiciones (orders, instructions) él cumplirá con su deber y yo quedaré mas contento.

9. No soy amante de disputas, mis dependientes podrán asegurarle que durante mi larga carrera y no obstante que no faltaron ocasiones, no acudí una sola vez á los Tribunales.

EXERCISE 2 (78).

1. The long and short of the matter is that (en pocas palabras) we had agreed he was to do it.

2. This is nothing short of dishonesty (esto se llama falta de honradez, nada menos).

3. No matter what he will say (diga lo que dijere) I am sure he will have to pay.

5. The cloth was run (plegada) in pieces of 20 yds. exactly, the consequence being that some pieces were found by the customer to be with cuts (cortes).

6. It is of no use (es inútil) our struggling any longer (por más tiempo) against adversity.

7. Your writing in that strain (en aquel tono) shows plainly that their action has cut you to the quick (profundamente).

9. The shocking abuses that existed under the monarchy are being (se van) corrected by the Republican Government.

11. These stuffs are too heavily sized and the finish is not sufficiently mellow.

As in English, several past participles may be used with an active meaning, as—

Agradecido (grateful)
Atrevido (bold, daring)
Bien hablado (a courteous speaker)
Callado (taciturn)
Cansado (tiresome)
Comedido (thoughtful, considerate)
Corrido[191] (acute, artful)
Divertido (amusing)
Entendido (experienced, conversant)
Experimentado (experienced, expert)
Sufrido (patient)

The periphrastic or progressive conjugation: "I am buying," "I was selling," "I shall be buying," etc., exists in Spanish with the following differences from English:—

In the present and the past it is used, but only when the action embraces a certain length of time, otherwise the simple form "I buy," "I sold" (imperf. indic.) must be used, as—

The Spanish Academy gives this example as of an action more or less instantaneous: So-and-So was throwing himself out of the window.

The periphrastic form is inadmissible unless one is actually engaged in the action, as:

Hoy como con mi amigo (not "estoy comiendo," because not actually engaged in the action): To-day I am dining with my friend.

Cuando venga mañana, yo estaré escribiendo: To-morrow when he comes, I shall be writing.

The periphrastic form never happens with the verb ir (to go), and seldom with venir (to come).

The English present perfect (preterite compuesto) "I have done" is often used in Spanish for the past definite "I did," when the period of time in which the action took place is not specified.

Siempre que he ido á Madrid he visitado el Prado for Whenever I went to Madrid I visited the Prado.

We even find "ayer he hecho esto ó aquello" for "yesterday I did this or that," and this is accounted for by the "nearness" of the period elapsed. Although colloquially this does not sound at all so badly as in English, well-educated Spaniards will take care to avoid it.

The second or bye-form of the imperfect subjunctive may be used also for the conditional mood, as—

Se lo diera si lo tuviese instead of se lo daría, etc.: I should give it to him if I had it.

It is also found (in books, not in conversation) for the compound imperfect indicative, especially after que, as—

Los consejos que le diera (for que le había dado): The advice which I had given him.

In old Spanish, and even now in poetry, we find it used for every one of the compound past tenses.

The verb "to come" should be rendered in Spanish by ir when the person is not in the place in question at the time of speaking or writing, as—

¿Quiere V. venir aquí á mi casa mañana? Will you come here to my house to-morrow?

Hoy estoy indispuesto pero mañana iré á verle: To-day I am unwell (out of sorts), but to-morrow I shall come to see you.

The emphatic word in an English sentence is often and more elegantly translated by a paraphrase in Spanish—

Esta transacción hubo de arruinarle: This transaction was within an ace of ruining him.

"I believe myself to be clever," etc., is not translated "Yo me creo ser hábil," but "Yo me creo (or considero) hábil," or "Yo creo ser hábil," or "Creo que soy hábil."

Pres. Part., Diciendo. Past Part., Dicho. Pres. Indic., Digo, dices, dice,—,—, dicen. Pres. Subj., Diga, digas, diga, digamos, digáis, digan. Imp. Mood, Dí … Past Def. Indic., Dije, dijiste, dijo, dijimos, dijisteis, dijeron. Future Indic., Diré, dirás, dirá, diremos, diréis, dirán.

VOCABULARY.

=agrupación=, group, muster =aislado=, isolated, hedged in =alcalde=, mayor =arreglo amistoso=, friendly understanding =capataz=, foreman =carta de naturaleza=, certificate of naturalization =cifras=, figures *=dar pasos=, to take steps =dedicarse=, to devote oneself =derechos protectores=, protective duties =diputación= provincial, provincial council =elaborar=, to elaborate =genio=, temper =inquietarse=, to feel uneasy *=no tenerlas todas consigo=, to feel uneasy *=irse en rodeos=, to beat about the bush =labor indígena=, native labour =pequeñeces=, trifling matters =perspectivas=, prospects =plan=, plan[192] (idea) =proyecto=, project, scheme =repasar=, to go through =resultado=, result =(de) resultas de=, in consequence of, as a result of =vecino=, inhabitant, ratepayer[193] =vuelta de correo (á), (by) return of post

[Footnote 193: Vecino = ratepayer who has acquired certain rights after a certain period of residence.]

EXERCISE 1 (79).

1. Las leyes de España declaran: Son españoles todas las personas nacidas en territorio español, los hijos de padre ó madre españoles aunque hayan nacido fuera de España, y los extranjeros que hayan obtenido del Gobierno Español carta de naturaleza, ó sean vecinos de cualquier pueblo de España.

2. Añaden que los extranjeros pueden establecerse y dedicarse libremente á sus profesiones en territorio español; pero ningún extranjero puede ejercer en España cargo alguno que represente autoridad.

3. Los miembros del Concejo ó cabildo ó ayuntamiento ó corporación municipal se llaman Concejales ó regidores.

4. En España el alcalde de Madrid es nombrado libremente por el Gobierno; el alcalde de las localidades cuya población no baje de 6,000 habitantes es nombrado por el Gobierno de entre los concejales, los demás alcaldes son nombrados por el voto de su compañeros concejales.

6. La Diputación Provincial es la agrupación de los varios municipios de cada provincia, y se reúne dos veces al año en la capital de la provincia.

EXERCISE 2 (80).

2. The Director is elaborating a bold scheme for establishing, in a foreign country hedged in by protective duties, a factory worked by native labour under an English manager (gerente) and experienced English instructors.

3. If this plan reaches concretion (se verifica) he will be going abroad shortly, when he will find that his agents will be taking already the preliminary steps.

5. I am going to attend to several trifling matters which however want looking after (hay que cuidar).

6. Whenever (siempre que) I decided on (he decidido) a thing, I have always acted on my decision (la he puesto en ejecución).

7. I tell you if I had a larger stock, I should feel rather uneasy at (con) the prospects of the market.

8. Come and see me to-morrow at my office and we shall come (llegaremos) to a friendly understanding without beating about the bush.

9. He told me the figures did not compare well with (no eran buenas en comparación de) those of last year.

10. Please go through the accounts again and tell me the result by return of post.

11. Short reckonings make long friends (las cuentas claras y el chocolate espeso).

Ser and Estar. Such expressions as "Smoking is prohibited," etc., are translated either "Es prohibido fumar" or "Está prohibido fumar." Both translations are grammatically correct ("Está prohibido fumar" is the general expression in this particular case).

If we say "Es prohibido fumar," we are referring to the "doer" of the action: "Es prohibido por la ley, por la policia, por los jefes, etc., etc."—a case of passive voice.

If we say "Está prohibido fumar" we have no "doer" in our mind, but only the thing itself = a case of "a condition of things" resulting from the action (the prohibition).

=EXAMPLE—=

El fumar es prohibido por el jefe, por esto está prohibido fumar en nuestro despacho: Smoking is prohibited by our employer (viz., our employer prohibits smoking), therefore it is not allowed in our office.

The above example is given for the sake of illustration by contrast; in practice, of course, such oddities are avoided.

The English expressions, "It is I, you, he, we, they, who …" must be rendered in Spanish by "Soy yo, es V., somos nosotros, etc., quien or quienes …"; i.e., the English impersonal "it is" must be made personal in Spanish.

This, one of the points for which rules cannot be laid, belongs to the idiom of the language, and practice is the only master (see Appendix V for a list of the most conspicuous differences) In reading, together with the meaning of a verb, ascertain its government.

Acabar de, followed by an infinitive, translates the English "to have just," followed by a past participle, as—

Acertaron á pasar cuando ella estaba asomada á la ventana: They happened to pass when she was looking out of the window.

(Before an infinitive de is omitted after "alegrarse," as: Me alegro decirle: I am glad to tell you.)

No se puede saber lo que le cabrá á uno en suerte: One cannot know what one's lot will be.

Pres. Part., Yendo.[194] Pres. Indic., Voy, vas, va, vamos, vais, van. Pres. Subj., Vaya, vayas, vaya, vayamos, vayáis, vayan. Imper. Mood, Ve … vayamos or vamos … Imperf. Indic., Iba, ibas, iba, íbamos, ibais, iban. Past Def. Indic., Fuí, fuiste, fué, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron.

[Footnote 194: No word in Spanish commences with "ie." Hence the change into "ye."]

Pres. Indic., Salgo. Pres. Subj., Salga, salgas, salga, salgamos, salgáis, salgan. Imp. Mood, Sal . . . Fut. Indic., Saldré, saldrás, saldrá, saldremos, saldréis, saldrán.

VOCABULARY.

=arrancar=, to wrench, to squeeze out =biblioteca=, public library =codicia=, greed, covetousness *=darsele á uno de una cosa=, to matter =desgraciado=, unfortunate =deslumbrar=, to dazzle =factura simulada=, pro forma invoice =fiesta del comercio=, bank holiday =fomento=, development, encouragement *=hacer impresión=, to impress =hacienda=, finance, property =(no) perdonar nada=, to leave no stone unturned =próxima=, near, approaching *=regir=, to rule, to govern, to control =sacar=, to pull out, to get out =sin perjuicio de=, excepting *=tener a su cargo=, to have in charge *=tener en poco=, to think little of

EXERCISE 1 (81).

2. El Ministerio de Estado trata de las relaciones de España con los demás Estados y corresponde al "Foreign Office" inglés.

3. El de Gracia y Justicia tiene á su cargo todos los asuntos relativos á la Administración de Justicia y alorden eclesiástico.

5. El de Hacienda, el Ministerio de Marina, el Ministerio de la Gobernación (Ministry of the Interior) que vigila y dirige todos los negocios y asuntos propios del Gobierno y administración civil del Estado, así generales como locales, sin perjuicio de las atribuciones de los ayuntamientos y Diputaciones provinciales, el Ministerio de Fomento (Ministry of P. Works) que rige todo lo relative á la agricultura, industria, comercio, obras, públicas, montes (forests), minas, y estadísticas.

6. Este corresponde más ó menos al inglés "Board of Trade;" y el Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Bellas Artes que tiene á su cargo cuanto se refiere á la enseñanza, bellas artes, archivos, bibliotecas, y museos, y que representa aproximadamente al "Board of Education."

EXERCISE 2 (82).

1. It is I who shall leave for Paris (saldré para) now that the matter is arranged.

4. Yesterday you went for a few minutes but it was an hour before you returned (no volvió antes de).

6. It happened to be on a bank holiday and our offices (oficinas) were of course closed on that day.

7. We shall be glad if you will kindly instruct (dé instrucciones á) your cashier to pay our account.

10. I am sorry to have to tell you that the cargo by the s.s. "Maria" was lost through the vessel stranding (por haber varado) on (en) the Spanish coast.

11. Coming back from having seen (á vuelta de haber visto) the machine working (en función) he told us how favourably impressed he had been.

15. I have left no stone unturned to squeeze something out of this unfortunate business but it has been of no avail.

Este vestido le cae bien: This dress fits her well.
Caer en gracia: To fall into the good graces of one.
La puerta cae á oriente: The door is on the east side.
Ya caigo, ya caigo en ello: Now I understand.
Caerse redondo: To fall flat.

Dar en el clavo (= acertar): To hit it.
Dar por concedido, dar de barato: To grant for the sake of argument.
Lo doy por bueno: I consider it as good.
Dar los naipes: To deal cards.
Dar la enhorabuena, el pésame, los buenos días: To congratulate, to
condole with, to wish good day.
Dar la hora: To strike the hour.
Dar en caprichos: To give oneself up to whims.
Dar en un error: To incur an error.
Darse preso: To give oneself up.
Darse al estudio: To apply or devote oneself to study.
Dar á creer: To make believe.
Dar con una persona: To come across a person.
No se me da nada: I do not care a bit.
Ahí me las den todas: I do not care a bit.

Many other idioms are formed with dar for which a good dictionary should be consulted.

Dejemos de hablar: Let us cease talking.
Dejó de hacerme la remesa que me había prometido: He omitted to send me
the remittance he promised me.
No dejaré de ejecutar su orden: I shall not fail to execute your order.

Echar (to throw) forms also many idioms for which the dictionary should be consulted—

Echar á correr, á reir, etc.: To start running, laughing, etc.
Echar á perder: To spoil, to ruin.
Echar de beber: To pour out drink.
Echar de ver: To perceive, to notice.
Esto se echa de ver: This is obvious.
Echar menos or de menos: To miss, to feel the want of.
Echar la llave, el cerrojo, la tranca: To lock, to bolt, to bar (the
door).
Echar la culpa: To lay the blame.
Echar mano: To lay hold, to lay hands upon.
Echar un cigarillo, un puro: To smoke a cigarette, a cigar.

Estar en que: To be of opinion.
Estar por: To be in favour of.
Estar para: To be on the point of.
Estar por hacer: To be yet to be done.

Faltó a la promesa: He failed to his promise.
Me faltan cinco duros: I am short of five dollars.
N.B.—"Me hacen falta cinco duros" is "I need five dollars."

Me guardaré bien de hacerlo: I shall take care not to do it. ("I shall take care to do it" would be translated "cuidaré de hacerlo.")

Hacerse, Ponerse, Volverse, Llegar á ser, translate the English "to become," when this is not rendered by turning the English adjective into a verb, as—

Se hizo todo un inglés: He became quite an Englishman.
Se puso colorado: He became red in the face.
Se volvió loco de contento: He became mad with joy.
Llegó á ser famoso: He became famous.
Se enriqueció: He became rich.

Me hice enviar los bultos: I had the packages sent to me.
Hice escribir una carta: I had a letter written.

Llevar—"to carry," "to wear."
Llevar á mal: To take amiss.
Llevarse bien con todos: To get on with everybody.
Llevarse chasco: To be disappointed.
Llévese V. estos valores: Take these securities with you.

Volver (to return, i.e., to come or go again) is used before an infinitive to denote a repetition of its action—

Volver á decir: To say again.
Decir otra vez: To say again.
Decir de nuevo: To say again.

VOCABULARY.

=abonar=, to speak for a person, to recommend =actas=, deeds (writings) =amén de=, besides =apenas=, barely, scarcely *=arrepentirse=, to repent =bergantín=, brig =concluir un trato=, to strike a bargain =contramaestre de filatura=, master spinner =conveniente para=, becoming =cregüelas=, osnaburgs =crespones=, crêpons *=dar cuenta=, to report =destajista=, contractor =discutir=, to discuss =dobladillo de ojo (con)=, hemstitched =empeñar=, to engage =en regla=, in order =escrito=, writing (n.), letter *=exponerse á=, to expose oneself to, to encounter =fidedigno=, trustworthy =fracasar=, to fall through =goleta=, schooner =hundimiento=, subsidence =pañuelos de luto=, black-bordered handkerchiefs *=poner pleito=, to bring an action =posición=, position, standing *=probar fortuna=, to try one's luck =proceder= (n.), proceeding, behaviour =redactar=, to draw up (deeds), to write out =repulgados, dobladillados=, hemmed =suelo=, ground, soil =telas rizadas=, crimps =vencer=, to win, to fall due

EXERCISE 1 (83).

1. En contestación á su estimada carta pésanos (we are sorry) deberles notificar que hasta ahora no hemos podido dar con los crespones que nos han pedido.

2. Obra en nuestro poder su apreciable del 3 del que rige con orden para cregüelas, pañuelos de algodón de luto, dobladillados (or repulgados) y pañuelos de lino con dobladillo de ojo, y no dejaremos de darles cuenta detallada de lo que hayamos hecho, en nuestro próximo escrito.

4. Estamos en que se arrepintió de su contrato y nuestros Directores están por ponerle pleito.

6. Conozco á un joven que debería ser competente pero me guardaré de empeñarle sin obtener informes fidedignos que le abonen.

7. De resultas de un hundimiento en el suelo sufrió daños de importancia el cuerpo del edificio amén de haberse caído la chimenea.

EXERCISE 2 (84).

1. He wants to make us believe that the price at which he sold them barely covers his cost.

2. I do not care whether he gains or loses; I have ceased to take an interest in his affairs.

5. He was on the point of striking a bargain with him, but it fell through at the last moment and now everything is to be discussed again.

6. He failed to present himself at the creditors' meeting, and he has therefore forfeited (perdido) his right of opposition (de oponerse).

8. He became very rich by his fortunate deals (especulaciones) in railway shares.

11. The deeds are not in order: please do not take amiss my requesting you to have them drawn up again.

The English verbs "shall," "will," "should," "would," "may," "might," when used as auxiliary verbs (viz., as mere signs of the future tense, conditional or subjunctive moods respectively) are rendered by the corresponding terminations of the Spanish verb[195]—

I shall go: Iré.
Thou wilt go: Irás.
We should go: Iríamos.
You would go: Vs. irían.
I hope he may succeed: Deseo que tenga buen éxito.
I wished he might come: Deseaba que viniese.

[Footnote 195: "Shall," "should," "will," "would," are also rendered by the Subjunctive Mood when according to the Spanish rules the verb should be Subjunctive. Example—

It is (was) possible that he will (would) have to work late:
Es (era) posible que tenga (tuviese) que trabajar tarde.]

When they are used as principal verbs they are translated by Deber (shall, should), Querer (will and would), and Poder (may and might), as—

You shall go: V. debe ir.
You may speak: V. puede hablar.
I will not buy more: No quiero comprar más.
You should accept our terms: Vs. deberían[196] aceptar nuestras
condiciones.

[Footnote 196: The Imperfect Indicative debía, podía, quería, is often used for "debería," "podría," and "querría." This occurs also with other verbs, colloquially: Yo se lo daba si estuviese aquí for Yo selo daría si estuviese aquí.]

I can do it now: Puedo hacerlo ahora.
I can do it next month: Puedo or Podré hacerlo el mes próximo.

"Could" is translated by the imperfect indicative or the conditional mood of Poder—

I did it whenever I could: Lo hacía siempre que podía. I could do it if I had the necessary means: Podría hacerlo si tuviese los medics necesarios.

"Would," meaning "used to," is, of course, translated by the imperfect indicative—

When he was in Paris he would sit in the cafés for hours: Cuando estaba en Paris se pasaba horas enteras en los cafés.

"Should he do," etc., is translated "if he should do," etc. (si lo hiciese).[197]

[Footnote 197: After si (if—Conditional) the verb is present indicative or imperfect subjunctive (see Lesson XXIV).]

"Can" is translated by saber when the faculty expressed is the result of learning, as—

"To be to," "to have to" are translated by Tener que, Haber de or Deber (see Lesson XXVII), as—

Who is to write out that invoice? ¿Quién ha de (debe) escribir aquella
factura?
I have to be very careful: He de ser muy cuidadoso.
I shall have to work hard: Tendró que trabajar fuerte.

"Let" as a principal verb is translated by dejar or permitir; as an auxiliary it corresponds to the Spanish imperative mood—

Let him speak: Déjele V. hablar, or Permítale V. que hable. Let him ask for it and we shall give it to him: Pídalo (or que lo pida) y se lo daremos.

"To let (or hire) a house"—"alquilar (una casa)"—I have let my house:
He alquilado mi casa.

VOCABULARY.

=abogar por=, to plead for =acoger=, to receive =agasajar=, to welcome =apurar=, to clear up, to investigate =arrancar=, to wrench, to pull out, also to date from *=atender á=, to attend =clases nocturnas=, evening classes =condiciones=, terms *=convenir en=, to agree, to acquiesce =cruzados=, twills[198] =culpado=, at fault *=despedir=, to dismiss =desteñido=, faded =detallado=, detailed, circumstantial =estrenar=, to use or wear a thing for the first time =estrenarse=, to commence, to make a start =farditos=, trusses[199] =fiados, book debts =el idioma, la lengua=, language =malversar=, to embezzle =nansús=, nainsooks =negociado=, division (Gov. Office) =oportunidad=,, opportunity, chance =pagaré=, promissory note, bill =parte=, report =perfeccionar=, to perfect =por poder=, per pro =tiro, largura=, length =tomar vuelo=, to develop, to increase

EXERCISE 1 (85).

1. Quiso acogerme generosamente en su casa, en donde fuí atendido y agasajado durante el tiempo de mi estancia en X.

2. Le agradecería de veras una orden pues aun no me he estrenado hoy, y V. debería dármela pues me la tiene prometida.

3. Los cruzados y los nansús se han puesto en farditos y estos se han empacado cada cuatro en un fardo.

4. Avisamos á Vs. el envío por correo, de cortes (cuttings) de toda la serie y observarán que son telas de muy buena vista (very sightly) y se pueden pedir en cualquier tiro.

9. El Ministro está ocupado en apurar los hechos, estando decidido á castigar severamente á los que resultarán culpados.

EXERCISE 2 (86).

5. He is sending me to the Court (Tribunal) that I may watch (seguir) that interesting case (proceso).

6. He sent his nephew here that he might learn our business methods (métodos comerciales) and perfect his knowledge of the English language.

7. You may see for yourself (V. mismo) that the state of the market will not justify (no justifica) buying (el comprar) at present.

10. They could square up the account by signing[200] promissory notes at 4 and 6 months' time.

13. Should they acquiesce to the terms of the arrangements, we authorise you to sign it per pro.

14. Had he known the cloth was faded he would not have taken receipt of (admitido) the bale.

15. Mr. Gómez is to visit the Estate (terreno) and send a circumstancial report.

16. I shall let him attend (asistir á) the evening classes at the Manchester School of Technology.

17. It is only fair that (es muy justo que) he should have a chance of mastering (aprender á fondo) the art of spinning and weaving.

THE ADVERB.

Mucho is the only adverb which does not generally admit of "very" for the superlative; it takes ísimo instead. However "muy mucho" is found, especially when used jocularly.

To the adverbs given in Lesson XXVIII we add the following adverbs and adverbial locutions—

Á la noche (at night)
Á manos llenas (profusely)
Á ojos cegarritas (blindly)
Á ojos vistas (obviously)
Á pie juntillas (firmly)
Á rienda suelta (recklessly)
Á todo escape (at full speed)
Ayer tarde or por la tarde (yesterday evening)
Cuanto antes (as soon as possible)
De buena, mala gana (willingly, unwillingly)
De buenas á buenas (willingly)
De buenas á primeras (at first sight, straight away)
De hoy en quince (to-day fortnight)
Hoy hace quince días (just a fortnight ago)
De propósito (on purpose)
De tiempo en tiempo (from time to time)
Día sí, y otro no (every other day)
Mañana por la mañana (to-morrow morning)
Nunca jamás (never—emphatic)
Para siempre jamás (for ever and ever)
Pasado mañana (the day after to-morrow)
Por mal (bien) que (however badly (well))
Por poco (nearly, but for little)
Tal cual vez (once in a while)

EXAMPLES—

Por poco se rompió la cabeza: He nearly broke his head.
Por mal que le salga: Badly as it may turn out for him.

Con lujo—lujosamente (luxuriantly).
Con dificultad—difícilmente (with difficulty).

This, of course, is found also in English but is more frequently done in
Spanish.

Recientemente is generally abbreviated into recién before a past participle, as—

El recién llegado (the newly arrived).
El recién venido (the newly arrived).
El recién nacido (the new born).

Venga acá cuando necesite algo: Come here when you want anything.
Allá, en su tierra esto se hace: There in your country this is done.
Aquí estoy y aquí me quedo: Here I am, and here I remain.
Ponga este paquete allí: Put this packet there.

Ahí—there (near the person spoken to[201]) also means your city, your country, there (in correspondence).

Si los precios ahí son razonables podrá hacerse mucho negocio: If prices over there are reasonable, a large business can be done.

Mejor es sufrir que no hacer sufrir: It is better to suffer than to make others suffer.

Temo que no llegue demasiado temprano[202]: I am afraid he will arrive too early.

[Footnote 202: This sentence is ambiguous, because it might mean the opposite: Temo que no llegue demasiado temprano sino demasiado tarde. The tone of the voice must be relied upon or a different construction must be used.]

_Pres. Part., _Viniendo. _Pres. Indic., _Vengo, vienes, viene,—,—, vienen. _Pres. Subj., _Venga, vengas, venga, vengamos, vengáis, vengan. _Imper. Mood, _Ven … _Past Def., _Vine, viniste, vino, vinimos, vinisteis, vinieron. _Fut. Indic., _Vendré, vendrás, vendrá, vendremos, vendréis, vendrán;

VOCABULARY.

=á ciegas, á ojos cegarritas=, blindly =agotar=, to drain, to exhaust =al amor de=, near, beside =aparentar=, to appear =basto=, common, inferior, coarse =de bien á mejor=, better and better =cabal=, upright, just =de cabo á rabo=, from top to bottom rom end to end =el efectivo=, the cash, the money =en efectivo, en metálico=, in cash =enterarse=, to get to know =escuchar=, to listen =esquela=, note =etiqueta=, rótulo, ticket, label =hombre llano=, sincere, rough-and-ready man =loza=, crockery =medida=, measurement =medrar=, to prosper *=ponerse á sus anchas=, to make oneself comfortable =porcelana=, china =quebranto=, mishap, misfortune, loss *=salir en=, to come up to =silla=, chair =solicitado=, sought after =un si es no es=, just a trifle *=venir á menos=, to come down in the world, to decline =vidriado=, glassware

EXERCISE 1 (87).

1. Desde nuestra última revista no se puede decir que haya habido mucha variación en nuestro mercado aunque se nota algo más de firmeza y los precios aparentan ser un si es no es más caros.

3. Entregué la esquela al anciano señor quien, sentado al amor del fuego, la leyó de cabo á rabo y, como hombre llano que es me dijo de buenas á primeras que no queriendo obrar á ciegas, daría su contestación en un par (couple) de días.

5. No, no me había enterado, la tuve siempre por casa fabricante de loza, porcelana, y vidriado, cuyos negocios iban de bien á mejor.

7. Lo siento de veras. Es muy de deplorar porque el Sr. Fernández es hombre muy cabal.

8. Invirtió una porción de dinero en el ferrocarril aereo (overhead) de N.; eso también le causó algún quebranto.

EXERCISE 2 (88).

2. We are always impressing upon (llamando la atención de) our warehousemen the importance of marking the measurement on the tickets.

3. Besides being loose (fugitives) colours they are not half so (nada tan) bright as they should be.

4. They advertise profusely and from time to time they issue new illustrated catalogues.

5. Soon (cuanto antes) they will start (principiarán á) issuing them in foreign languages.

7. I was nearly caught in the India Rubber boom, but fortunately I managed to get off (pude librarme) without burning my fingers (cogerme los dedos).

9. Here in England things are managed (se hacen) on a different basis altogether (de una manera enteramente distinta).

13. I was afraid (que no) you were going to ask me for more and that would have drained all our available (que tenemos) cash.

THE PREPOSITION.

One word should not be used in Spanish governed by two different prepositions, as—

He is an admirer of and a contributor to the "Times": Es admirador del
"Times" y colabora en ese periódico.

The man I spoke with and wrote to: El hombre con quien hablé y al cual escribí.

However, we find the same construction as in English in cases of antithesis, as—

El billete cuesta 20 pesetas desde ó hasta Madrid: The ticket is 20 ptas. from or to Madrid.

As will have been noticed before, a preposition governing a word cannot be used after the word it governs, as—

[Footnote 204: Work, artistic, literary, scientific—"obra." Work, manual, or mental—"trabajo."]

The preposition con followed by an infinitive translates the English "by," followed by the present participle—

However, desde may be used instead of de before names of countries or cities—

"En acabando[205] lo haré" has the meaning of "I shall do it as soon as I have finished."

[Footnote 205: En is the only preposition which may govern a pres. participle, generally with the meaning given above.]

We add the following idiomatic uses of Por and Para to what we said about these two prepositions in Lesson XXIX:

Por may translate "on behalf of," "for the sake of," "in favour of," "during," "through"—

Habló por el proyecto de ley: He spoke in favour of the bill.
Se presentó por la casa: He appeared on behalf of the firm.
Por la paz y buena armonía concedemos lo que V. pide: For the sake of
     peace we allow what you ask.
Les sirvió por cinco años: He served them during five years.
Trabaja por la mañana: He works during (in) the morning.
Vino por París: He came through Paris.
Cotizar por un artículo: To quote for an article.
Yo por mí (or por mi parte) prefiero comprar al contado: I, for one,
     prefer to buy for cash.
Por[206] rico que sea, no tendrá suficientes recursos: No matter how
     rich he is, he will not have sufficient means.
Es demasiado avaro por ser tan rico: for such a rich man, he is too
     miserly.
Caro por caro prefiero géneros ingleses: If I have to pay a dear price,
     I prefer English goods.
Por sí ó por no: In any case, should it be so or not.
Ir (venir) por: To go (come) for.
Enviar por el médico: To send for the doctor.
Por holgazán perdió el empleo: He lost his employment through laziness.
Por bién ó por mal: Willy-nilly.
Vendré por la Navidad: I shall come by Christmas.
Por si acaso: In case that.

No sirve para más: He is good for nothing else.
Venir para la Pentecostés: To come for Whitsuntide.
Esto no es para menos: The thing (or occasion) is worth it.
Para español (or por ser español) es muy alto: He is very tall for a
     Spaniard.
Tener grande consideración para este hombre: To have great respect for
     this man.
Dar pedidos para ferretería, ollería, y maquinaría: To give orders for
     ironware, hollow-ware and machinery.
Es demasiado avaro para ser tan rico: He is too miserly to be so rich.

Poseía £10,000 sin los bienes raíces que heredó de su padre:
He owned £10,000 besides the real property he inherited from his father.

VOCABULARY.

=acabado, aderezo=, finish (cloth) =acolchados=, quiltings =admitir=, to admit, to accept =agente exclusivo=, sole agent =alfombradas=, carpetings =á no ser así=, were it not so, otherwise =anclar=, to anchor =arreglo=, agreement =bajista=, bearish (exchange) =cablegrama=, cablegram, cable =capataz=, foreman =conceder=, to grant =coquillos=, jeans =disposición=, disposition, disposal =empeñarse=, to pledge oneself =en su ramo=, in your line =exclusividad=, exclusive sale =fama=, fame, reputation, name =frazadas de algodón=, cotton blankets =lento=, remiss =nombrar=, to appoint =palo de mesana=, mizzen mast =palo mayor=, main mast =por escrito=, in writing =postergar=, to put off, to delay =proveerse=, to supply oneself =tapetes=, carpet rugs *=tener inconveniente=, to have an objection =tomar en consideración=, to take into consideration, to entertain =trinquete=, foremast

EXERCISE 1 (89).

1. Con ser abiertamente (manifestly) bajista la especulación, las acciones mineras se han sostenido.

2. Desde Barcelona ha llegado un radiograma avisando que había anclado en ese puerto el vapor "Cibeles" con el trinquete roto y el palo mayor y el de mesana también dañados.

4. Dos cajas de coquillos y una de pañuelos de andrinópolis (turkey red) nos vinieron por Burdeos (Bordeaux), los acolchados, las alfombradas, los tapetes y las frazadas de algodón se embarcaron por mar.

8. Por bien ó por mal tendrá que admitir los géneros pues se han fabricado por su cuenta y tenemos su orden por escrito para ellos.

10. Para género de algodón el acabado (or aderezo) es todo lo que se puede desear.

13. Si desea V. obtener órdenes debe tener mucha consideración para los corresponsales.

14. No puedo prometerle entrega para 1° de Junio exactamente, pero haré por efectuarla por esa fecha.

15. ¿Conoce V. el refrán: "No hay mal que por bien no venga"? (It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.)

EXERCISE 2 (90).

2. It being in your line, I thought I ought to give you the first chance (hacerle la primera oferta) in case it would tempt you (por si acaso le animara á comprar).

3. To begin with you would have to engage the cloth to us (darnos la exclusividad).

5. He was appointed sole agent for the whole of Mexico through the recommendation of his brother-in-law, and his agreement with the firm is for 3 years certain (fijos).

6. That will bring him (le producirá) £500 a year if it brings him a penny (por lo menos).

7. Being such an important concern (casa) they do not pay their staff very handsomely (generosamente).

13. It cannot be helped, otherwise (Tenga paciencia, si fuese posible) we would do everything for you.

He pagado por él cinco chelines or lo he pagado cinco chelines: I paid five shillings for it.

Further uses of the Spanish prepositions different from the English, and forming idioms—

A caballo (on horseback)
Á ciegas (blindly)
Á consecuencia de esto (in consequence of this)
Á deshora (inopportunely)
Á duras penas (with great efforts)
Á esconditas (covertly)
Á fe de caballero (upon the word of a gentleman)
Á gatas (on all fours)
Á hurtadillas (stealthily)
Á la española (in the Spanish fashion)
Á la mesa (at table)
Al antojo de uno (after one's fancy)
Á la tarde (in the afternoon)
A la verdad (in truth)
Al descuido y con cuidado (studiously careless)
Á lo largo del río (along the river)
Á lo que parece (to all appearances)
Hecho a máquina (made by machinery)
Á pie (on foot)
Á poco de escribir (shortly after having commenced writing)
Á propósito (opportunely, à propos)
Á regañadientes (reluctantly)
Á saberlo yo (had I known it)
Á sangre fría (in cold blood)
Á sus anchas, anchuras (at one's ease)
A tiro de cañón (within cannon shot)
Es más hábil que yo, con mucho (he is cleverer than I by far)
Con ser amigo y todo (although he be a friend)
Contra el norte (facing the north)
De año en ano (from year to year)
De balde (for nothing, gratis)
De bóbilis (without effort)
De broma (in jest)
De buenas á buenas (willingly)
De buenas a primeras (straight away)
De capa caída (crestfallen)
De contado (of course)
De día, etc. (by day, etc.)
De jaleo (on the spree)
De luto (in mourning)
De mejor en mejor (from better to better)
¡Ay or Infeliz de mí! (woe to me!)
De miedo (through fear)
Anteojos de oro (gold spectacles)
De patitas (on shanks' pony)
De peor en peor (from bad to worse)
De perillas (venir) (quite opportunely, à propos)
El picaruelo de Perico (that young rascal Perico)
De pies á cabeza (from head to foot)
De puntillas (on tiptoe)
De repente (suddenly)
Del todo (at all)
De veras (in truth)
Dos á dos (two by two)
Está en casa (he is at home)
En estas condiciones (under these conditions)
En señal de aprecio (as a mark of esteem)
Entrecano (gray-haired)
Entre dos aguas (doubtful, perplexed)
Entre la espada y la pared (between the devil and the deep sea)
Nos dió 5 pesetas para repartir entre yo[207] y mi hermano
(he gave us 5 pesetas to be divided between my brother and me)
Hasta la vista (good-bye for the present)
Hasta los animales tienen gratitud (even animals feel gratitude)
Sobre las diez (at about ten o'clock)
Tiene sobre los treinta (he is about thirty years old)
Sobre más 6 menos (a little more or less)
Tras la pérdida el escarnio (besides the loss the scoffing)

[Footnote 207: Entre is generally followed by the nominative case unless it means "to" as—Dijo entre sí. He said to himself.]

About different prepositions used in Spanish and English after certain verbs, see also Appendix V.

Acerca de (relating to, concerning)
Á despecho de (in spite of)
Á pesar de (in spite of)
Antes de (before—in point of time)
Cerca de (near)
Junto á (near)
Conforme á (according to)
Con respecto á (with respect to)
Respecto de (with respect to)
Debajo de (under)
Dentro de (inside)
Después de (after)
Encima de (on, or over)
En cuanto á (as to)
En frente de (opposite)
Frente á (opposite)
En lugar de (instead of)
En vez de (opposite)

VOCABULARY.

=acordonado=, corded =agujas=, needles =alechugado=, frilled =alemaniscos=, linen damasks =alfileres=, pins =antojo=, whim, caprice =árbitro=, arbitrator =arreglado=, reasonable (price) =arrollar=, to roll =batas=, wrappers (ladies') =bodega=, cellar, also hold (ship) =chales=, shawls =dedales=, thimbles =desinteresarse=, to abandon *=desplegar=, to unfold =dictamen=, award, decision =entrepuentes=, between decks =festoneados=, scalloped =gratificación=, gratuity =guarniciones, adornos=, trimmings =lanillas para banderas=, buntings =listados de algodón=, cotton stripes =logro=, attainment =ovillos de algodón=, cotton balls =pañol, carbonera=, bunker (ships') =pintura=, paint =rehusar=, to decline =sábanas=, bed sheets =subasta=, auction =tablillas=, boards =tablones=, planks =terliz=, ticking =terreno=, land, property =trencilla=, braid

EXERCISE 1 (91).

1. Agradezco (por) el interés demostrado á mi amigo y la actividad desplegada en facilitarle el logro de sus fines.

2. Hemos dado diez mil duros por este terreno y no lo hemos pagado demasiado caro.

3. No puede V. rehusar los alemaniscos y quedarse con los géneros para sábanas y los terlices, á su antojo.

4. Á la verdad las agujas y alfileres han resultado algo caros como también los dedales pero las trencillas, guarniciones, y ovillos de algodón son á precio muy arreglado.

5. Vino muy á deshora y á poco de haberse sentado nos declaró que no esperaría.

6. Estos chales á 4 chelines y estos listados de algodón á 5 peniques la yarda son de balde, no lo decimos de broma.

7. Accedió á nuestra propuesta de buenas á buenas y de buenas á primeras nos depositó la suma de 1,000 francos.

8. Los fondos austríacos van de peor en peor y por eso está nuestro parroquiano de capa caída.

10. Estuvimos entre dos aguas por algún tiempo, pero una vez puestos entre la espada y la pared (once we are so hard pressed) no nos queda más sino hablar claro, y ¡lo dicho!

EXERCISE 2 (92).

4. In consequence of your having outstepped (excedido) our instructions, we must decline all responsibility with respect to delivery.

5. We have put boards inside the pieces according to our usual custom; we did not know you wanted them rolled.

6. Our new offices will be next to the Oil and Paint Stores (almacén), and opposite the General Post Office (casa de correos).

7. The planks used under the bales for dunnage (la estiva) were sold almost for nothing, in spite of our request to hold them at our disposal.

8. The steamer can carry 4,000 bales a little more or less if she fills her holds and takes cargo between decks.

10. As a mark of our appreciation (estima) we authorize a gratuity to the Captain of £5.

11. The salvage (salvamento) has been sold partly by auction and partly by private treaty.

12. To all appearances the corded and frilled wrappers are superior to the scalloped.

THE CONJUNCTION.

Si used for "whether" may be followed by a verb in any mood and tense as in English—

No sé si habrá buena cosecha este año: I do not know whether there will be a good crop this year.

No pudo, or supo, decirme si me entregaría los pagarés para la fecha convenida: He could not tell me whether he would be able to hand me the promissory notes for the date agreed upon.

Si used as the conditional "if," is followed by the verb in the present indicative or imperfect subjunctive, as—

Le dije que si viniese le pagaría: I told him that if he came I should pay him.

[Footnote 208: When the action refers to the future the "future subjunctive" may be used instead, but this is rarely done. It emphasises the uncertainty.]

Si soy (fuí) malo! Well, I am (was) wicked!
¡Si será (sería) tan necia! Can (could) she be so foolish!
¿Si vendría? I wonder will he come!
¡Si se lo había dicho yo mil veces! But I had told him so many times!

Other idiomatic uses of this si will be learnt by practice (all more or less pleonastic as in the above examples).

We have said that "but" is translated by sino after a negative unless a finite verb follows. Therefore, "Not to buy but to sell" is translated "No comprar sino vender."

After a negative a finite verb may be preceded by sino que instead of pero in cases like the following examples—

No compró sino que vendió: He did not buy but (on the contrary) he sold.
No sólo que es barato sino que es de muy buena calidad:
Not only is it cheap, but it is (also) of a very good quality.

Ni … ni—"neither … nor" (same as all negative words) when following a verb requires No to precede the verb, as—

Pues—"seeing that" or "since" is used often for "then," "but," "well" (used as an interjection).

Quiso desobedecerme, pues vera su falta: He would disobey me, but he will see his fault.

We shall conclude the lesson with the different meanings of Ya (sometimes used also redundantly). They are given for the sake of completeness although Ya in its different uses belongs to different parts of speech—

Ya lo ha hecho: He has done it already.
Ya lo hará: He will do it yet.
Ya no se hace esto: This is done no longer.
Ya consienten, ya rehusan: Now they consent, now they refuse.
Ya consientan, ya rehusen: Whether they consent, etc.
Haré cuanto quieras si ya no me pides lo imposible:
I shall do anything you wish if you do not ask (unless you ask) me
for impossibilities.
Ya que escribió: Since (seeing that) he wrote.
Ya ve V.: You see now.
Ya voy: I am coming.
Ya se ve: It is evident.
Ya, ya: Yes, of course.

VOCABULARY.

*=abolir=, to abolish *=advertir=, to warn =alegar=, to allege =al revés=, on the wrong side =barnices=, varnishes =barrica=, cask =batista de algodón=, cambric =baúl=, trunk =betunes=, blacking =bicicleta=, bicycle =botines=, boots =bramante=, twine =bufandas=, mufflers =buje=, hub =cerradura=, lock =chanclos=, goloshes =cintos de seda=, silk sashes =cinturones de cuero=, leather belts =colchas de plumón=, down quilts =consignatario=, consignee =ejecutar=, to execute, to put through *=hacer escala=, to call at (ships) =llantas=, tyres =maleta=, portmanteau =mango=, handle =marca=, brand, mark =merma=, loss, leakage, shortage =muebles de bejuco=, rattan furniture =niquelado=, nickel-plated *=perder cuidado=, not to worry =rayos=, rays, spokes (wheels) =reborde=, rim, flange =remolacha=, beetroot =rezumar=, to leak =tejido elástico=, webbing =zapatos=, shoes

EXERCISE 1 (93).

3. Esos vapores arrancan (start) de Liverpool y hacen escalas en varios puertos.

6. Quiero un baúl y una buena maleta de piel de Rusia con cerradura niquelada si las hay (or hubiere).

10. El comercio del caucho se ha desarrollado mucho, se usa ahora en grande escala no sólo para llantas neumáticas de bicicletas y otras piezas (parts) sino también para gomas de automóviles.

11. No sólo tengo que cambiar el mango de mi bicicleta sino reemplazar los rebordes y componer el buje y algunos rayos de la rueda.

12. No es posible hallar botines de señoras y zapatos más elegantes que los de nuestra marca, ni se pueden conseguir más baratos en parte alguna.

14. Ya he colocado un pedido para bufandas y ya veré si me tiene cuenta pero no mande barnices ni betunes pues ya no trato en estos artículos.

15. Ya, ya. V. se ha dedicado ya á los géneros en pieza, si no me engaño, pues V. ya dice una cosa ya otra.

EXERCISE 2 (94).

1. Whether he puts through my order for leather belts and silk sashes or not, I do not much mind, but if he should oblige me, I would do him a good turn (le haría algún servicio) if the opportunity presents itself.

2. If the webbing and down quilts are good, I shall not begrudge (no me pesará) the advance in price.

3. Can it be true (si) that the gate or octroi duty (el impuesto de consumos) is going to be abolished in Spain?

4. Well (pues) the Government has presented a bill to that effect and I hope we shall soon see the octroi offices (fielatos) abolished.

6. Beetroot has been largely planted in the province of Granada and is now in great request for the sugar industry.

7. We strove hard (nos hemos esforzado mucho) to introduce the new brand and we have gained our point[209] at last.

8. The cloth was folded on the wrong side and we anticipate some difficulty on that score (por esta razón).

10. They allege that the casks were leaking and that there was consequently a loss of thirty gallons (galones).

VOCABULARY.

I. SPANISH-ENGLISH.

=A=

=abacá=, Manilla hemp =abajo=, below =abaratamiento=, cheapening =abarcar=, to embrace, to include =abarrotado=, glutted, cram full =abastecerse=, to supply oneself =abasto=, supply =abedul=, birch =abeto=, fir =ablandar=, to soften =abogado=, lawyer, solicitor, barrister =abogar=, to plead =abolir=, to abolish =abonar=, to speak for, to recommend, to credit =abordar=, to accost, to approach, to board =abrigar=, to shelter, to cherish (hope) =abril=, April =abrir=, to open =abrir agua=, to leak =absolutamente=, absolutely =abuso=, abuse =acá, aquí=, here =acabado=, finish (cloth) =acabar=, to finish =acabar de ..=., to have just =acaudalado=, rich, wealthy =acceder=, to accede =accidente=, accident =acciones=, actions, shares =acciones preferences=, preference shares =accionista=, shareholder =aceite=, oil =acerca de=, relating to =acero=, steel =acertar á=, to happen, to contrive =acoger=, to admit, to receive =acolchado=, quilting =aconsejar=, to advise, to counsel =acorazado=, iron-clad =acordar=, to agree =acordarse=, to remember =acordonado=, corded =acreditar=, to credit =actas=, acts, deeds =actitud=, attitude =active=, active =activo y pasivo=, assets and liabilities =actual=, present, current, instant (month) =acudir=, to attend, to have recourse to =acusar=, to accuse, to show =adecuado, proporcionado=, adequate =aderezo=, finish (cloth) =adeudar=, to debit =adherir á=, to adhere to =adjunto=, enclosed, herewith =administrador=, manager (of a branch house, etc.) =admitir=, to admit, to accept, to acknowledge =adornos=, trimmings =adquirir=, to acquire =á duras penas=, with great effort =advertir=, to notice, to warn =aéreo=, overhead =afanarse=, to exert oneself, to take much trouble =aficionado á=, fond of =aflojar=, to relax =afortunadamente=, fortunately =agasajar=, to welcome =agencia=, agency =agiotista=, stock-jobber =aglomerar=, to agglomerate =Agosto=, August =agotar=, to drain, to exhaust =agradable=, agreeable, pleasant =agradar=, to oblige =agradecer=, to thank, to be obliged for =agrandar=, to enlarge =agrícola=, agricultural =agrio=, sour =agrupación=, group, muster =agua=, water =agudo=, sharp, keen =águila=, eagle =aguja=, needle =ahí=, there =ahora=, now =ahorrar=, to save, to economise =aislado=, hedged in, isolated =(lo) ajeno=, other people's property =ajeno á=, averse to, foreign to =ajo=, garlic =ajustar=, to adjust =ajuste=, adjustment =á la larga=, in the long run =á la verdad=, in truth =albaricoque=, apricot =alborear=, to dawn =alcalde=, mayor =alcista=, bull, bullish (exch.) =alechugado=, frilled =alegar=, to allege =alegrar=, to gladden =alegrarse=, to rejoice =alejarse=, to go away =alemanisco=, linen damask =alerta=, alert =alfiler=, pin =alfombra=, carpet =algo=, something, anything, somewhat, rather =algodón=, cotton =algodón disponible=, spot cotton =algodonero (mercado)=, cotton market =alguno=, some, any =aliento=, courage =alistar=, to enlist =allá, allí=, there =allanar=, to level, to facilitate =allí, allá=, there =alma=, soul =almacén=, warehouse =almacenero=, warehouseman =almacenes fiscales=, bonded warehouses =al menos=, at least =alquilar=, to rent, to hire, to give or take on lease =al revés=, on the wrong side =altos hornos=, blast furnaces, foundry =aludir á=, to allude, to hint =un alza=, a rise (price) =una alza=, a rise (price) =amabilidad=, kindness =amanecer=, to dawn =amar=, to love =amargo=, bitter =amarillo=, yellow, buff =ambos=, both =á medida que=, in proportion as =amedrentar=, to frighten =á mejor andar=, at best =amén de=, besides =á menos que=, unless =á menudo=, often i =americana=, coat, jacket =amigo=, friend =amistad=, friendship =amistoso=, friendly =amo=, master =amontonar=, to heap up, to pile up =amor=, love =amplio=, ample =añadir=, to add =ancho=, width, wide =anclar=, to anchor =andar=, to walk, to go =Andrinópolis (pañuelos de)=, Turkey red (handkerchiefs) =año=, year =anochecer=, to grow dark =ansioso de=, anxious, eager to =anteayer=, the day before yesterday =anterior=, anterior, previous =antes (de)=, before (time), formerly =anticipatión=, anticipation =anticipo=, advance =antiguo=, ancient, old =antojo=, caprice, whim =anular=, cancelar, to cancel =anunciar=, to advertise =apacible=, mild (colour) =apagado=, extinguished, quiet =apagarse=, to go out (fire) =aparecer=, to appear, to make one's appearance =aparentar=, to show outwardly =apelar=, to appeal =apenas=, scarcely =apertura=, opening =á pesar de=, in spite of =apetecer=, to desire, to covet =aplazar=, to postpone =á plazos=, by instalments =apreciar=, to appreciate =aprender=, to learn =apremiar=, to press, to urge =apresto=, finish (cloth) =apresurar=, to hasten (a), to urge =apresurarse=, to hasten (n) =aprovecharse=, to take advantage, to avail oneself of =aproximarse=, to approach, to draw near =apurar=, to exhaust, to investigate, to purify =apuro=, embarrassment =aquel, that =aquí=, here =arado=, plough =arancel=, Custom House tariff =árbitro=, arbiter, umpire =árbol=, tree =árbol de eje=, axle-shaft =archivos=, archives =arduo=, arduous, difficult =argüir=, to argue =armadores=, shipowners =armadura=, frame, framing (mach.) =armario=, cupboard =armas blancas=, side-arms =armas de fuego=, fire-arms =armazón de cama=, bedstead =arpillera=, bagging =arquitecto=, architect =arrancar=, to squeeze out, to wrench, to start from =arreglado=, reasonable =arreglar=, to arrange, to settle =arreglo=, arrangement =arrepentirse=, to repent =arriesgado=, dangerous =arrollar=, to roll =arroz=, rice =asamblea=, meeting =asargado=, twill =ascensor=, lift, hoist =asegurar=, to insure, to secure =asentar=, to seat, to book (orders) =asistir=, to assist, to attend =asociación de obreros=, trade union =asunto=, subject, matter, question, affair =atajo=, short cut =atañer=, to bear upon =atención=, attention =atender á=, to attend =atendible=, plausible =atenta (su)=, (your) favour =aterlizado=, twill =atizador=, poker =atraer=, to attract =atraicionar=, to betray =atrasado=, overdue =atravesar=, to cross =atrevido=, bold, daring =atribución=, attribution =atribuir=, to attribute =atropellar por=, to infringe, to run down =aumento=, increase =aunque=, although, even if =automóvil=, motor-car =avaro, avariento=, miser, miserly =avena=, oats =averia=, average, damage =avergonzarse=, to be ashamed =aviso=, advice, notice =avistar=, to sight =ayer=, yesterday =ayudar=, to help =azadas=, hoes =azadones=, pick-axes =azúcar=, sugar =azuelas=, adzes =azul=, blue

=B=

=baja=, decline, fall (in prices, etc.) =bajá=, pasha =bajar=, to go, to come down =bajista=, bear, bearish (exch.) =bajo cubierta=, under deck =balde (de)=, gratis, for nothing =balde (en)=, in vain, of no avail =ballena=, whale =bañar=, to wet, to bathe, to water =banco=, bank, bench, desk =banco de liquidación=, clearing-house =barato=, cheap =barba, barbas=, beard =barbilla, barba=, chin =barco, navío, buque=, ship, boat =barniz=, varnish =barrer=, to sweep =barrica=, cask =base=, basis =bastante bien=, pretty well =bastar=, to suffice, to be enough =basto=, coarse, common, inferior =bata=, wrap =batista, batiste=, lawn =baúl=, trunk =bayeta=, baize =beber=, to drink =belleza=, beauty =beneficio=, benefit =benéfico=, beneficent =benévolo=, benevolent =bergantín=, brig =berzas=, cabbages =betún=, blacking =biblioteca=, library =bicicleta=, bicycle =biela=, connecting rod =bien=, well =(el) bien=, (the) good =bien estar=, well-being =billar=, billiards =bisabuelo=, great grandfather =blanco=, white =blanco (n)=, aim =blando=, gentle, soft =blanquear=, to bleach =bobina=, bobbin =boca=, mouth =bocina=, megaphone =bodega=, cellar, hold (ship) =bola=, ball =boletín=, form, slip, price list =bolsa=, Exchange, Bourse =bombas de aire=, air pumps =bondadoso=, kind =bonificar=, to make an allowance, a rebate =bonito=, pretty =bordado=, embroidered =botas=, boots =boticario=, chemist =botines=, boots =botón=, button =bramante=, twine =brazo=, arm =brevedad=, brevity, shortness =(á la mayor) brevedad=, as soon as possible =brisa=, breeze =brochado=, brocade =buey=, ox =bufanda=, muffler =bufete de abogado=, lawyer's office =buje=, hub =bullir=, to boil =bultos=, packages =buque, barco, navío=, ship, boat =buque á motor=, automóvil, motor-boat =buque de vapor=, steamer =buque de vela=, sailing vessel =burlarse=, to make fun of, to trifle with =bursátil (mercado)=, money market =buscar=, to look for, to search =buscarse=, to bring upon oneself

=C=

=cabal=, just, upright =caballero=, señor, gentleman =caballo=, horse =caber=, to be able to contain, to be able to be contained =cabeza=, head =cabida=, room, space =cable=, cable =cablegrama=, cablegram =cabo=, corporal, end =cada=, each, every =caer=, to fall =caída=, fall (n.) =café, coffee =café, castaño=, brown (dyed) =caja=, case, box =cajero=, cashier =calcetines, socks, half hose =calcular, to calculate =cálculo=, calculation =caldera=, boiler =caldero=, small cauldron, bucket =caldos=, wines and oils (collectively) =calidad=, quality =callar=, to be silent, to abstain from saying =calle=, street =calor=, heat, warmth =calorífero=, stove =calzado=, footwear =cama=, bed, bedstead =cambiar=, to alter, to exchange =cambio, los cambios=, change; the Bill Market =camisa=, shirt =(el) campo=, (the) country, (the) countryside =campo=, field =caña=, cane =cáñamo=, hemp =cancelar, anular=, to cancel =canela=, cinnamon =cansar=, to tire =cantidad=, quantity (also amount) =capataz=, foreman =el capital=, the capital (money) =la capital=, the capital (town) =capitán=, captain =cara=, face =carbón (de piedra)=, coal =carbón (vegetal)=, charcoal =carbonera, pañol=, bunker =carecer (de)=, to lack =cargamento=, cargo =cargar=, to load, to debit =carne, carne seca=, flesh, meat, jerked beef =carne en salmuera=, pickled beef =caro=, dear, expensive =carpeta=, writing pad =carranclanes, guingas=, ginghams =carril=, rail =carriles, rieles, railes=, rails =carro=, cart =carta=, letter =cartera=, pocket-book, portfolio =cartero=, postman =casa=, house, firm =casaca=, coat, jacket =casar=, to marry =casarse=, to marry =casillero=, pigeon-holes =castaño, café=, brown (dyed) =castellano=, Castillian, Spanish =castigar=, to punish, to chastise =catálogo=, catalogue =caucho, goma elástica=, rubber =cauteloso=, cautious =cauto=, cautious =cebada=, barley =cebolla=, onion =ceder=, to cede, to yield, to make over =cédula=, warrant =celebrar=, to be glad of =celebrarse=, to be celebrated, to take place (meetings, etc.) =célebre=, celebrated =celeste=, heavenly, sky-blue =cena=, supper =cepillo=, brush, also plane =cerca de=, near (prep.) =cercano=, near (adj.) =cerradura=, lock =cerrar=, to close, to shut =cerrar (con llave)=, to lock =cerrar el trato=, to conclude the bargain =certificar=, to certify, to register (letters, etc.) =cerveza=, beer =cestilla=, waste-paper basket =ciego=, blind =cielo=, heaven, sky =cien, ciento=, hundred =ciencia=, science, wisdom =cierre=, lock-out =cierto=, certain =cifras=, figures =cigarros, tabacos, puros=, cigars =cigüeñal=, crank shaft =cilindro=, cylinder, roller =cima=, top =cinta=, ribbon =cinto=, sash =cinturón=, belt =circular=, to circulate, to go round =citar=, to quote, to cite, to mention a passage, etc. =citar ante los tribunales=, to summon =ciudad=, city =cizallas=, shears =claramente=, clearly =claras (a las)=, openly, clearly =claro=, clear, clearly, light (colour) =claro y redondo=, quite openly =clavel=, carnation =clavos=, nails, cloves =cliente=, client, customer =clientela=, custom, clientèle, connection =clima (el)=, climate =climatológico=, climatic =cobrar=, to charge, to collect (money) =cobre=, copper =cocer=, to bake, to cook =codicia=, greed =codiciar=, to covet =coger=, to catch, to capture =col=, cabbage =colcha de plumón=, down quilt =colección=, collection, set (of patterns) =colgar=, to hang =colmo=, climax, record =colocar=, to place =coloniales=, colonial produce =color firme, sólido=, fast colour =color falso, fugitive=, loose colour =coloridos=, colourings =columna=, column =comanditar=, to finance =comarca=, region, district (of a country) =comedido=, considerate, thoughtful =comenzar=, empezar, to commence =comer=, to eat =comercial=, commercial =comerciante=, negociante, merchant =comercio=, commerce, trade =comisionista=, commission agent =como, ¿cómo?= as, how? =compañía anónima (por acciones)=, limited company =compensar=, to compensate, to make good =competidor, contrincante=, competitor, neighbour =complacer, agradar, favorecer=, to oblige =completo=, complete, full =compra=, purchase =comprar=, to buy =comprender=, entender, to understand =comprometerse=, to compromise, to commit oneself, to prejudice, to undertake =común=, common =concebir=, to conceive =conceder=, to grant =concejo, cabildo, ayuntamiento, municipality =concerner=, to concern =concisamente=, concisely =condiciones=, terms =conducir=, to lead =conducta=, conduct, behaviour =con el corazón en la mano=, quite candidly =conexiones=, connections, couplings =confeccionar=, to make up =conferencia=, lecture =confesar=, to confess =confianza=, confidence, trust =confiar (á)=, to entrust =confiar (en)=, to trust =(de) conformidad (con)=, in accordance with, agreeable to =conforme a=, according to =conocer=, to know a person, an object =conocimiento, conocido=, acquaintance =conocimiento=, bill of lading =consabido=, in question =conseguir, obtener=, to get, to obtain, to succeed in =consejo=, advice =conservas alimenticias=, preserves =considerar=, to consider =consignación=, consignment =consignar=, to consign, to record =consignatario=, consignee =consumidor=, consumer =contado (al)=, (for) cash =con tal que=, provided that =contar=, to count, to relate =contar con=, to calculate, to reckon upon =(el) contenido=, the contents =contentar=, to oblige =contento=, content, contentment =contestar, responder=, to answer, to reply =continuamente=,, continually =continuar=, to continue =contra, en contra de=, against =contrabando=, contraband =contramaestre de filatura=, master spinner =contramandar, revocar=, to countermand, to revoke =contrario=, unfavourable, contrary, adverse =contratiempo=, hitch =contrato=, contract, written agreement =contribuir=, to contribute =contrincante, competidor=, competitor, neighbour =convencer=, to convince =conveniente=, convenient, suitable =convenio=, agreement =convenir=, to agree, to suit =convocar=, to call together (to a meeting) =copa, sombrero de=, silk hat =copiador=, copy book =coquillos=, jeans =cordobán=, morocco leather =correas=, belts (machine), belting =corredor=, broker =correo=, the post =correr=, to run =correrse=, to make a slip of the tongue =correspondencia=, correspondence =corresponder a las necesidades=, to meet the requirements =corresponsal=, correspondent =corrido=, acute, artful =corriente=, current, inst. =cortapluma=, penknife =cortarse=, to cut oneself, to stop short (in middle of speech) =corte=cutting =cortésmente=, politely, courteously =corto=, brief, short =cosa=, thing =cosecha=, harvest, crop, harvest time =costa=, coast =coste, flete y seguro (c.f.s.)=, c.i.f., cost, insurance, freight =costumbre=, custom, habit =cotización=, quotation =cotizar=, to quote (prices) =crédito=, credit =creer=, to believe, to think =cregüelas=, osnaburgs =crema=, cream =crespolinas=, crimps =criada=, maidservant =criado=, manservant =croquis=, sketch =cruzados=, twills =cuadritos=, checks =cuadro=, picture, table (figures) =cualquiera=, any (affirm.) =cualquiera=, whoever, whichever =cuando=, when =cuandoquiera (que)=, whenever =cuantioso=, abundant, ample =cuarto=, apartment, room, quarter =cuarto=, fardín, farthing, a trifling amount =cúbico=, cubic =cubrir, cubierto=, cover, covered =cucharas=, spoons =cuchilla=, knife =cuenta=, account, statement =cuenta de venta=, account sales =cuenta simulada, pro= forma account =cueros=, hides =cuerpo=, body =cuesta=, slope =cuestión=, question =cuidadosamente=, carefully =cuidar=, to take care =cuidarse=, to take care of oneself =culpa=, fault, blame =culpado=, at fault =cumplir (con)=, to fulfil, to accomplish =cuñada=, sister-in-law =cuñado=, brother-in-law =cuota=, quota =cuyo=, whose

=CH=

=chaconadas=, jaconets =chal=, shawl =chaleco=, vest, waistcoat =charla=, prattle, gossip =chanclos=, goloshes =chapa=, plate (metal) =chelín=, shilling =cheque=, cheque =chillones=, gaudy (colours) =chimenea=, chimney =chocolate=, chocolate =chucherías=, pretty trifles

=D=

=damasco=, damask =dañar=, to damage =daño=, damage, injury, breakdown =dar=, to give =dar aviso al proprietario=, to give notice to leave =dar cuenta=, to report =dar en el clavo=, to hit it =dar las gracias=, to give thanks =darse á partido=, to yield, to submit =dátiles=, dates =debajo (de)=, under =deber=, to owe, must =debido á=, owing to =de buena tinta (tener)=, from a good source (to have) =decadencia=, decadence =decididamente=, decidedly =decidir, decidirse=, to decide, to make up one's mind =decir=, to say, to tell =declamar=, to declaim =declarar=, to declare =declararse en quiebra=, to file one's petition in bankruptcy =decretar=, to decree =dedal=, thimble =dedicarse=, to devote oneself =defecto=, defect, imperfection =definir=, to define, also to settle =definitivo=, definite =dejar=, to leave, to let =dejar sin efecto=, to cancel (orders, etc.) =delegado=, delegate =delicado de salud=, in indifferent health =delinquir=, to commit a delinquency =demanda y oferta=, supply and demand =demandar=, to demand =demasiado=, too, too much =de miedo que=, lest =de modo que=, so that =demora=, delay =demostrar confianza á=, to show confidence in =dentro (de)=, inside, within =depender (de)=, to depend (upon) =dependiente=, clerk =deplorar=, to deplore =depósito=, deposit, depôt, store =deprimir=, to depress =derecho=, right, straight, customs, duty =desanimado=, lifeless, stagnant (market) =desanimar (se)=, to disconcert, to feel discouraged =desarme=, disarmament =desarrollar=, to develop =descarga=, discharge, unloading =descomponer=, to put out of gear =desconcertar=, to put out, to upset =descuidar=, to neglect =desdichado=, unfortunate, unhappy =desear=, to wish =desembarcar=, to load =deseoso=, eager, wishful =desfavorable=, unfavourable =desgracia=, misfortune =deshacerse (de)=, to get rid of =deshonra=, dishonour =desinteresarse=, to abandon =deslumbrar=, to dazzle =despacho, escritorio, oficina=, office =despacio=, slowly =despedida (aviso de)=, dismissal (notice of) =despejar=, to clear =desperdiciar=, to waste =despertar=, to wake up =desplegar=, to unfold =despreciable=, despicable =después=, after, afterwards =destajista=, contractor =desteñir=, to fade =detalles=, details =detenidamente=, at length =detallado=, detailed =detrás=, behind =deuda=, debt =devanarse los sesos=, to rack one's brains =devoción=, devotion =devolver=, to return, to give or send back =(el) día=, the day =diagonales=, twills =diario=, day book =días de estadía=, lay days =días de contra estadía=, days of demurrage =dibujos, diseños=, designs =diccionario=, dictionary =dichoso=, lucky =Diciembre=, December =dictamen=, award, decision =dientes=, teeth =diferente=, different =diferir=, to defer, to postpone =difícil=, difficult =dificultad=, difficulty, also objection =difunto=, late, deceased =diligencia=, diligence =diligentemente=, diligently =(un) dineral=, (a) mint of money =dinero=, money =dinero efectivo=, cash, ready money =Dios=, God =dique=, dock =dirección=, address, direction =dirigir=, to direct =dirigirse=, to address oneself =discípulo=, pupil =discreto=, discreet, sensible =disculpar=, to excuse =discutir=, to discuss =diseños, dibujos=, designs =diseñador=, draughtsman =disfrutar (de)=, to enjoy =disgustado=, annoyed, disgusted, displeased =dispensar=, to excuse =disponer=, to dispose, to arrange =disponible=, available, spot (cotton) =disposición=, disposition, disposal, instruction =distinguir=, to distinguish =distinto=, different =distrito=, district =disturbado=, disturbed, upset =disturbio=, disturbance =divertirse=, to enjoy oneself =doblar, duplicar=, to double, to duplicate =dobladillado=, hemmed =con dobladillo de ojo=, hemstitched =docena=, dozen =doctrina=, doctrine, knowledge =documento=, document =doler=, to hurt, to ache, to pain =dolor=, pain, sorrow =dolor de cabeza=, headache =doloroso=, painful =domicilio=, residence, registered office of a company =Domingo=, Sunday =dominio=, dominion, control =donde (¿dónde?)=, where =dondequiera que=, wherever =dormir=, to sleep =dormirse=, to fall asleep =dril=, drill =duda=, doubt =dudar=, to doubt, to question =duplicar, doblar=, to duplicate, to double =durante=, during =durar=, to last

=E=

=echar=, to throw, to cast =echar á perder=, to spoil, to ruin, to wreck =echar al correo=, to post =edificio=, local, building =efectuar=, to effect =ejecutar=, to execute =ejército=, army =elaborar=, to elaborate =elegantemente=, elegantly, stylishly =elegir, escoger=, to choose, to select =elevar=, to raise, to enhance, to put up =embajador=, ambassador =embarcar=, to embark, to ship =embarque=, shipment =embrollar=, to entangle, to cheat =emisión=, issue =emitir=, to issue =empacar=, to pack =empeñar=, to engage, to pawn, to pledge =empeño (tener)=, to be earnest, anxious about anything =empeños=, obligations, engagements =empeoramiento=, turn for the worse, deterioration =empezar, comenzar=, to commence =emplear=, to employ =emplearse=, to be employed, used for =emprendedor=, enterprising =empresa=, undertaking, concern, enterprise =empréstito=, loan =en breve=, shortly =encaje=, lace =encaminar=, to forward =encargarse (de)=, to take charge =encarnado=, red =en caso que=, in case =encina, roble=, oak =encojerse=, to shrink =encojido=, shrunk, shrivelled =en contra de=, against =encontrar=, to meet, to find =encuadernar=, to bind (books) =endosar=, to endorse =en efectivo, en metálico=, in cash =Enero=, January =enfadado=, angry =enfermo, malo=, ill =enfurecido=, furious, infuriated =engañifa=, trick =engranaje=, gearing =en latas=, canned =en regla=, in order =ensartapapeles=, file =ensartar=, to file papers, to string beads =ensayo=, trial, proof, venture =en seguida=, at once =enseñanza=, teaching =enseñar=, to teach, to show =entender, comprender=, to understand =entenderse de=, to be a judge of =enterarse=, to get to know =entero (por)=, in full =entonces=, then, at that time =entrante, próximo=, next =entrar (en)=, to enter =entre=, between, amongst =entrega=, delivery =entregar=, to deliver, to hand (personally) =entrepuentes=, between decks =enviar, mandar=, to send =envidia=, envy =envió=, shipment =época=, epoch, time, period =equidad=, equity, fairness, fair dealing =equipo=, equipment =equitativo=, fair =equivocación=, mistake =equivocarse=, to make a mistake, to be mistaken =error=, mistake, error =escala=, ladder, scale =escala (hacer)=, to call at (steamers) =escandaloso=, scandalous, shocking =escaño=, stool =escapar, huir=, to escape =escarcha (tornado por la)=, frost-bitten =escarmentar=, to take warning =escoba=, broom =escoger, elegir=, to choose, to select =escribir (se)=, to write, to write to each other =escrito=, letter, writing (n.) =escritor=, writer =escritorio=, writing desk, office =escuchar=, to listen =es decir, á saber=, viz. =ese, a, o=, that =esfuerzo=, effort =espada=, sword =espalda=, shoulder =espaldas=, back =español=, Spanish =espantarse=, to be frightened =especias=, spices =especie=, species, kind, rumour, news =especulación=, deal, speculation =esperar=, to hope, to wait for, to expect =espeso=, thick =esposo-a=, husband, wife =esquela=, note =establecer (se)=, to establish, to establish oneself =estación, temporada=, season =estadística=, statistics =estallar=, to break out, to burst =estampar=, to print (cloth) =estancia=, stay =estante=, bookshelf =estaño=, tin =estar, estarse=, to be =este,-a,-o=, this =este=, east =estima=, appreciation, esteem =estiva=, stowage =estrenar=, to use or wear for the first time =estrenarse=, to make a start =estudiar=, to study =estufa=, stove =eternamente=, eternally, for ever =etiqueta=, ticket, label =evitar=, to avoid =exacto=, exact, accurate =examen=, examination =exceder=, to exceed, to overstep =exclusive=, exclusive, sole =exhibir=, to show, to exhibit =exigir=, to require =exiguo=, slender, slight, small =existencias=, stocks =éxito=, result =éxito (bueno, malo)=, success, failure =expedidor=, sender =experimentar=, to experience, to experiment =experto=, experienced =explicar, explanar=, to explain =explotar=, to exploit, to work (mines, etc.) =exponerse á=, to encounter, to expose oneself to =exportación=, export, exportation =exportador=, exporter, shipper =extender=, to extend, to stretch =extranjero=, foreigner, foreign, also abroad =extraño=, strange, queer

=F=

=fábrica de algodón=, cotton mill =fabricante=, manufacturer =facilidad=, ease, facility =factura=, invoice =facturar=, to invoice =falta=, want, absence of, fault, blame =falta de aceptación, de pago=, non-acceptance, non-payment =faltar=, to be wanting, to be necessary, to fail =fama=, fame, reputation, name =famoso=, famous =fantasías=, fancies =fardín, cuarto=, farthing, a trifling amount =fardito=, truss =fardo=, bale =favorable=, favourable =favorecer=, to oblige =Febrero=, February =fecha=, date =fecha de=, dated =feliz=, happy =ferretería=, ironware =ferrocarril=, railway =festoneado=, scalloped =fiador=, surety =fiados=, book debts =fidedigno=, trustworthy =fiel=, faithful =fielato=, octroi office =fiesta del comercio=, bank holiday =fijar=, to fix =fijo=, fixed, firm =filosofía=, philosophy =firma=, signature =firmar=, to sign =firmeza=, firmness =(el) fin=, the end =fino=, shrewd =fletar=, to charter, to freight =flete=, freight =flojedad=, slackness =flojo=, slack =flor=, flower =floreciente=, flourishing =folleto=, leaflet =fomento=, development, encouragement =fonda=, hotel, hotel =fondo=, bottom, ground (colour) =fondos=, funds, capital =forma=, shape =formal=, formal, respectable =forro=, lining =fortuna=, fortune =forzar=, to force, to strain =fósforos=, matches =fracasar=, to fall through =fracaso=, failure =franco de averia particular=, f.p.a. (free particular average) =franco de porte, tra(n)sporte pagado=, carriage paid =franja=, fringe =franqueo=, postage =frase=, phrase, sentence =frazada=, blanket =frecuentemente=, frequently =(la) frente=, forehead =(el) frente=, front =fresno=, ash =frío= (adj. and n), cold =fruta=, fruit =fruto=, fruit of labour, etc. =fuente=, fountain, source =fuerte=, strong, fast, firm =fuerza motriz=, motive power =fugitivo= loose (colours) =fulano=, so and so =funcionar de, proceder (como)=, to act as =fundar=, to found =furioso=, furious =fustán=, fustian

=G=

=galón=, gallon =gana=, inclination, desire =gana, de buena, mala=, willingly, unwillingly =ganancias y pérdidas=, profit and loss =ganar=, to gain, to earn =ganga=, a bargain, cheap lot =garabato=, clothes hook =garantizar=, to guarantee, to warrant =garbanzos=, Spanish peas =garrote=, stick, cudgel =gastar=, to spend, to spoil; also to wear (usually) =gato=, cat, jack (machinery) =general=, general =géneros=, goods =géneros alimenticios=, food-stuffs =géneros imperfectos=, jobs =generoso=, generous =genio=, temper =gente (la)=, people =gerente=, manager =girar=, to draw (a bill), to turn =giro=, bill, draft, also turnover =gobernar=, to govern =gobierno=, government =goleta=, schooner =goma elástica, caucho=, rubber =gorra (gorro)=, cap =gorrión=, sparrow =gozar=, to enjoy =grabado=, embossed =gracia=, grace, gracefulness =graduación=, gradation, degree =granadas=, pomegranates =grande (gran)=, great, large =grande velocidad (á)=, by fast train =granizar=, to hail =granjearse=, to win over =granos, mercado de=, grain, grain market =gratificación=, gratuity =gratitud=, gratitude =gratuito=, gratuitous, honorary =grifo=, cock (machinery) =gris=, grey =grito=, cry, shout =grueso=, thick =gruñir=, to growl, to grumble, to grunt =guante=, glove =guardafuego=, fender =guardapapeles=, file =guardar=, to keep =guardar cama=, to lie in bed =guardias aduaneras=, custom house officials =guarnición=, trimming =guerra=, war =guingas, carranclanes=, ginghams =guisantes=, green peas =gustar=, to please =gustar (á uno)=, to like

=H=

=habas=, broad beans =haber=, to have, there to be =haber menester=, to need =habérselas con uno=, to dispute, to wrangle, to vie with =hábil=, clever =habitantes=, inhabitants =hablar=, to speak =hacer=, to do, to make =hacer caso=, to take notice =hacer constar=, to show, to demonstrate =hacer falta=, to be wanted =hacer frente=, to face, to meet (bills, etc.) =hacerse=, to become =hacer una remesa=, to send a remittance =hachuelas (hachas)=, hatchets (axes) =hacienda=, property, shop, stores =hallar, encontrar=, to find =hambre=, hunger =hampa=, vagabonds (company of) =hasta que=, until =hasta la fecha=, to date =hasta que punto=, to what extent =hato=, wearing apparel, bundle of clothes =hay=, there is, there are =haya=, beech =heces de sebo=, tallow, greaves =hecho=, fact, action =helar=, to freeze =(la= or =el) hélice=, the screw (of a boat) =herida=, wound, sting =herir=, to wound, to cut (fig.) =hermano=, brother =hermosamente=, beautifully =hermoso=, beautiful, fine, handsome =herramientas=, tools =hervir=, to boil =hidalguía=, nobleness, chivalry =hielo=, escarcha, frost =hierro=, iron =higos=, figs =higuera=, fig tree =hija política, nuera=, daughter-in-law =hijo=, son =hijodalgo=, gentleman by birth, squire =hijo político, yerno=, son-in-law =hilador=, spinner =hilados=, yarn =hilar=, to spin =hinchazón=, boom =hipoteca, mortgage =hipotecar=, to mortgage =historia=, history =holandas=, hollands =holgazán=, lazy =hombre=, man =hombre llano=, rough-and-ready man =honor=, honour =honradez=, honesty =honrar=, to honour =hora=, hour =hortelano= (fruit) gardener =hortera=, office boy (jocularly) =hoy=, to-day =huelga=, strike =huerta=, orchard =hueso=, bone =huir, escapar=, to flee, to escape =humear=, to smoke (of a chimney) =hundimiento=, subsidence

=I=

=el idioma=, the language =igual=, equal =igualar=, to equal, to match =ilustrado=, enlightened =ilustrar=, to illustrate =ilustre=, illustrious =impedir=, to hinder =imperfectos=, job lots =imponer=, to impose, also to inform =importaciones=, imports =importancia=, importance, amount =importar=, to matter =importar (en)=, to amount to =importe=, amount =imprimir (impreso)=, to print (printed) =imprevidencia=, want of foresight =imprevisto=, unforeseen =impuesto=, tax =impuesto de consumos=, octroi duties =incertidumbre=, uncertainty =incluir=, to enclose, to include =inconveniencia=, unsuitability, impropriety =inconveniente=, inconvenience =indemnidad=, indemnity, signed guarantee =indemnización=, indemnity (compensation for loss) =indicar=, to indicate, to point out =indígena=, native =industria=, industry =inercia=, idleness, inertia =infeliz=, unhappy =ínfimo=, infinitesimal =infinidad=, an infinite number =informe=, report =informes=, information(s), references =informar (de)=, to inform of, to acquaint with =ingeniero=, engineer =ingratitud=, ingratitude =ingresos netos=, net revenue =inmaturo, verde=, unripe =inmediato=, immediate =innavegable=, unnavigable =innoble=, ignoble =inquilino=, tenant =inquietarse=, to feel uneasy =integro=, integer, whole, upright =inteligencia=, intelligence =intención=, intention =intentar=, to intend =interés=, interest =interesante=, interesting =ínterin (en el)=, in the meantime =interino=, interim =interior=, interior, inland =intervista=, interview =interpretar=, to interpret =invertir=, to invest (money) =invierno=, winter =ir=, to go, to lead to =irrisorio=, laughable, absurd, ridiculously low (of prices) =irse=, to go away =isla=, island =izquierda=, left

=J=

=jabalí=, boar =jactarse=, to boast =jamón=, ham =jardín=, garden =jardinero=, gardener =jefe=, employer, chief =jornalero=, day-labourer =joven=, young, young man, young woman =judías=, French beans =Jueves=, Thursday =jugoso=, juicy =juicioso=, judicious, wise =Julio=, July =Junio=, June =junta de acreedores=, meeting of creditors =junto á=, near to, coupled with =justificar=, to justify, to warrant =justificarse=, to justify oneself =justo=, right, just, fair =jute, yute=, jute =juventud=, youth, young age

=L=

=la labor=, labour =laborioso=, laborious, hard-working =labrado=, figured—brocaded =lacre=, sealing-wax =lado=, side =ladrillos refractarios=, fire bricks =ladrón=, thief =lana=, wool =langosta=, lobster =lanillas para banderas=, bunting =lápiz=, pencil =lardo=, lard =largo=, long =largo de talle=, abundant, full =largura=, length =lástima=, pity =latón=, brass =lección=, lesson =la leche=, milk =lectura=, reading =leer=, to read =legajo=, bundle (of papers) =legislatura=, (parliamentary) session =lejos=, far away =lengua=, tongue, language =lento=, slow, remiss =letra=, bill of exchange, handwriting =levita=, frock-coat =la ley=, the law =libra=, pound sterling, pound weight =librarse=, to get rid of =libre=, free =libro=, book =libro de facturas=, invoice book =libro mayor=, ledger =liebre=, hare =lienzos=, linens =lienzos adamascados=, diapers =lienzos morenos=, brown (unbleached) linens =ligero=, slight, light =limitación=, curtailment, limitation =limitar=, to limit =límite=, limit =limones=, lemons =limpiar=, to clean =limpio=, clean =lingotes de hierro=, pig-iron =lino=, flax =linón, olán=, lawn =liquidar=, to liquidate, to settle, to clear off (goods) =líquido, neto=, nett =liso=, plain, smooth =lisonjearse=, to flatter oneself =lista, boletín=, price list =listados=, striped (goods) =el local=, the building, the premises =loco=, mad =locomotora=, locomotive =lograr=, to contrive, to attain =logro=, attainment =el lote, la partida=, lot =loza=, crockery =luchar=, to fight, to struggle against =luego=, at once, then =luego que=, as soon as =en lugar de=, instead of =Lunes=, Monday =luto=, mourning

=LL=

=llamar=, to call =llamarse (me llamo)=, to be called (my name is) =llantas=, tyres =llegar=, to arrive =llegar á ser=, to become, to contrive to be =lleno=, full =llevar=, to carry, to wear, to take =llevar á cabo=, to carry into effect =llevar chasco=, to be disappointed, to be baffled =llevarse bien=, to get on well =llover=, to rain =lloviznar=, to drizzle =lluvia=, rain

=M=

=maceta, portaramillete (portarramillete), florero=, flower-stand =machacar=, to hammer, to insist =madera=, timber, wood =madre=, mother =maestro=, teacher, master =maíz=, maize =mal=, badly =mala, correo=, post =malbaratar=, to undersell =malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent =maleta=, portmanteau =malgastar=, to waste, to squander =malo=, bad, wicked, also ill =malversar=, to embezzle =mampostería=, masonry =mancha=, spot, stain =mandar=, to order, to send =mandar buscar=, to send for =mandato=, order (injunction) =manga=, sleeve (also hose, pump) =de manga ancha=, not over-scrupulous =mango=, handle =manifestar=, to manifest, to inform, to say (in a letter) =mano=, hand, quire =mano de obra=, labour =manta=, blanket =manteca= (S. America, =mantequilla=), butter =manteca de puerco=, lard =mantener=, to maintain, to hold up =mantenerse=, to maintain oneself, to be maintained =manzana=, apple =mañana=, to-morrow, the morning =máquina á =vapor, steam engine =maquinaria=, machinery =mar alborotada=, heavy sea =maravillar=, to surprise =maravillarse=, to wonder =marca=, mark, brand =marcharse=, to go away =margarina=, margarine =marido=, husband =mariscos=, shell fish =mármol=, marble =martes=, Tuesday =martillos=, hammers =Marzo=, March =mas=, but =más=, more =más adelante=, later on =material rodante=, rolling-stock =(el) matiz=, shade of colour =matute=, smuggling =Mayo=, May =mayor=, larger =mayormente=, especially =(la) mayor parte=, most =mecanismo=, mechanism, contrivance (machinery of the law, etc.) =mecer=, to stir (a liquid), to rock (acradle, etc.) =mediana=, average =mediar=, to intervene =medias=, hose, stockings =médico=, doctor, physician =medida=, measure =mediería=, hosiery =medio=, half, means =medrar=, to prosper =mejor=, better =mejora, mejoría=, improvement, looking up (market) =mejorar=, to improve =melindroso=, squeamish, very particular =melocotones=, peaches =mención (hacer)=, to mention =mencionar=, to mention =menester=, necessary, needful =menor=, smaller =mensual=, monthly =(la) mente=, the mind =mercado=, market =mercancía=, merchandise, goods =merced á=, thanks to =mercería=, haberdashery =merma=, leakage =mes=, month =mesa=, table =método=, method =metro=, metre =miedo=, fear =miembro=, member =mientras=, while =mientras tanto=, meanwhile =miércoles=, Wednesday =mil=, thousand =milla=, mile =millón=, million =mina de carbón=, coal-mine, colliery =minero=, miner =mínimo=, minimum =ministro-erio=, minister, ministry =mirar=, to look =mismo=, same, self =la mitad=, the half =modista=, milliner =modo=, way, manner =moer=, mohair =moler=, to grind =montaje=, mounting (machinery) =monte, montaña=, mount, mountain =moratoria, moratorium=, time extension for payment =moreno=, brown, natural colour =moroso, lento=, remiss, slow (in payments) =mortal=, mortal =mostrar=, to show =motín=, riot =mover=, to move =mozalbete=, beardless youth =muchacho=, boy, lad =mucho=, much, exceedingly, greatly =muebles de bejuco=, rattan furniture =muestra=, sample =muestrarios=, pattern cards, sets =mujer=, woman, wife =multa=, a fine, penalty =mundial=, world (adj.) =mundo=, world =todo el mundo=, everybody =muselina=, muslin =museo=, museum =muy=, very

=N=

=nación=, nation =nada=, nothing =nanquín, mahón=, nankeen =nansú=, nainsook =naranjas=, oranges =nariz=, nose =naufragar (se)=, to wreck (to be shipwrecked) =navaja de afeitar=, razor =Navidad=, Christmas =navío, barco, buque=, ship, boat =necesario=, necessary =necesitar=, to want, to need =negar=, to deny =negarse=, to refuse =negativa=, refusal =negociado=, division (gov. office) =negociante=, merchant =negocio(s)=, business =negro=, black =neto, líquido=, nett =neumático=, pneumatic =nevar=, to snow =nieve=, snow =ninguno=, no one, any (after neg.) =niño=, child =niquelado=, nickel-plated =nivel=, level =no bien=, as soon as =noche=, evening, night =nombrar=, to appoint =nombre=, name =no obstante=, notwithstanding =norte=, north =no sea que=, lest =notas de banco=, bank notes =noticia(s)=, news =Noviembre=, November =novísimo=, brand new =nuera, hija política=, daughter-in-law =nuevo=, new =numero=, number =nunca=, ever, never

=O=

=objeto=, object =obligación=, bond, debenture, obligation. =obligar=, to compel =obligarse=, to bind oneself =obrar=, to operate, to work, to act =obrero=, workman =obsequio=, favour =observar=, to observe, to remark, to notice =obstruir=, to obstruct =obtener, conseguir=, to get, to obtain, to succeed in. =ocasión=, occasion =océano=, ocean =Octubre=, October =ocurrir=, to occur, to happen =oeste=, west =oficina, escritorio, despacho=, office =ofrecer=, to offer =ofrecimiento=, offer =oir=, to hear ¡=ojo=! attention, look out =el ojo=, the eye =olanes, linones=, lawns =ollería=, hollow-ware =olvidar (se)=, to forget =ómnibus=, omnibus =operaciones=, dealings, operations =operadores=, dealers (on 'Change), operators =oponerse=, to oppose =oportunidad=, opportunity, chance =óptimo=, very good, excellent =orden=, order =ordinario=, ordinary =organizar=, to organize =orilla=, bank (river), selvedge =oro=, gold =otoño=, autumn =otro=, other =ovillo (de algodón)=, ball (of cotton)

=P=

=padre=, father =padres=, parents =pagadero=, payable =pagar=, to pay =pagaré=, promissory note, note of hand =página=, page =paila, tacho=, pan (sugar manuf.) =país=, country (nation) =pájaro=, bird =palabra=, word =palacio=, palace =palas=, shovels, spades =palmera=, date-palm =palo de mesana=, mizzen mast =palo mayor=, main mast =pan=, bread, loaf =pana=, velveteen =pana acordonada=, cords, corduroy =paño=, cloth, suiting =pañol, carbonera=, bunker =pantalones=, trousers =pañuelo=, handkerchief =papel=, paper =papel secante=, blotting-paper =paquete=, packet, parcel =par=, pair, couple =á la par=, at the same time =para, por=, for =para con=, towards =para que=, so that =parecer=, to appear, to seem =el parte=, the report =la parte=, the part =partida=, lot, parcel (of goods) =partir=, to depart, to set out =pasar=, to pass, to hand =pasar por=, visitar, to call at =pasársele por alto á uno=, to escape one's notice. =pasas (de Corinto)=, raisins, currants =Pascua=, Easter =paseo=, promenade, walk, stroll =el pasivo, pasividades=, liabilities =paso=, step =dar pasos=, to take steps =patines=, skates =patria=, country, fatherland =patronos=, masters (of workmen) =pausa=, pause =paz=, peace =pedido=, order =pedir=, to ask, to demand =peligro=, danger =peligroso, arriesgado=, dangerous =pelo=, hair =penique=, penny =pensar (se)=, to think =Pentecostés=, Whitsuntide =(á) pequeña velocidad=, (by) slow train =pequeñeces=, trifles =pequeño=, small, little (adj.) =pera=, pear =percal=, calico =perder=, to lose =pérdida=, loss =perenne=, perennial =perfeccionar=, to perfect =perfectamente=, perfectly =perfecto=, perfect =periódico=, newspaper =perito=, expert =perjuicios=, damages =pero=, but =perro=, dog =perspectivas=, prospects =perturbar=, to disturb =pesado=, heavy =peso=, weight =pésimo=, very bad =petición=, request, petition =picos=, picks =(al) pie=, (at) foot =piel=, skin =pierna=, leg =piezas de repuesto=, spare pieces (machinery) =pimienta=, pepper =pino=, pine =pintura=, paint =pipa=, cask, pipe =pistola=, pistol =placer=, to please, pleasure =plan=, plan (idea) =planchas de hierro=, sheet iron =plano=, plan (sketch) =planta=, plant =plata=, silver =plaza=, market-place, square, place (town) =plazo=, term =plegar=, to fold =plomo=, lead (slate-colour) =pluma=, pen =población=, villa, town =pobre=, poor =poco=, little (adv. and subs.) =poder=, to be able =poder= (n.), power, power of attorney =(no) poder menos de=, not to be able to help … =poderoso=, powerful =podrido=, rotten =póliza de seguro=, insurance policy =poner=, to put, to place =poner al corriente=, to inform =poner en conocimiento=, to inform, to acquaint with =poner en condiciones=, to enable =poner pleito=, to bring an action =por, para=, for =porcelana=, china =por decirlo así=, so to say, as it were =por de contado=, of course =porfiar=, to insist =por más que=, however much, although =(al) por mayor, por menor=, wholesale, retail =pormenores=, particulars, details =porta estampillas=, stamp-rack =portabandera=, standard-bearer =portanto=, therefore =portaramillete (portarramillete) maceta=, flower-stand =porte pagadero al destine, tra(n)sporte seguido=, carriage forward =portes, franqueo=, postage =pórtico=, porch =poseer=, to possess, to be worth =posición=, position, standing =postergar=, to delay, to put off =práctico=, practical =preceder=, to precede =precio=, price =precioso=, precious =preferible=, preferable =preliminar=, preliminary =premio=, reward, prize, premium =prescindir de=, to dispense with =presentar=, to present, to lay before, to produce, to introduce one person to another =prestar=, to lend, to render (help) =presupuesto=, estimate =prevalecer, reinar=, to prevail, to rule =prever=, to foresee, to anticipate =previsión=, foresight =prima=, premium =primavera=, spring =primer dependiente=, chief clerk =primo-a=, cousin =principal=, principal, chief, leading =principiar=, to commence =principio=, beginning =prisa=, speed, haste, hurry =probar=, to try, to prove, to attempt =proceso=, process, case, lawsuit =producir=, to produce =producto=, product, produce, output =productos accesorios=, bye-products =productos químicos=, chemicals =profesor=, professor =prohibir=, to prohibit =pronto=, quick, speedy, soon =propietario=, landlord, owner =propio=, own =proponer=, to propose =proponerse=, to intend, to purpose =proporcionado, adecuado=, adequate =proveer= (p.p.), =provisto (proveído)=, to provide =provisorio=, interim =próximamente=, about, approximately (also shortly) =próximo=, next =proyecto=, scheme, plan, project =proyecto de ley=, parliamentary bill =prudente=, prudent =pruebas=, proofs, trials, evidence =publicar=, to publish =pueblo=, people, town, village =puerco=, pig =puerta=, door =puerto=, port, harbour =pues=, then, well… =puntitas=, pen-nibs =(al) punto=, (on) the spot =puntos=, points, dots, spots (in prints) =pupitre=, desk =puros, tabacos, cigarros=, cigars

=Q=

=que=, that, who, which =¿que?= what? =quebrantamiento=, breakdown =quebranto=, mishap, misfortune, loss =quedar(se)=, to remain =quehaceres=, business, occupations =queja=, complaint =quejarse=, to complain =querer=, to want, to wish to have =querer decir=, to mean =querido=, beloved, dear =queso=, cheese =quiebra=, bankruptcy =quien=, who, whom =quienquiera (que)=, whoever =quincalla=, smallware =quinta=, villa =quitar=, to take away

=R=

=radiograma=, wireless =ramo=, branch, line (of business) =rastrillos=, harrows =rayas=, stripes =rayos=, spokes, rays =razón=, reason =a razón de=, at the rate of =tener razón=, to be right =reanudar=, to resume =rebaja, reducción=, abatement, reduction, rebate =reborde=, rim, flange =rechazar=, to reject, to discard =recibir=, to receive =recibo=, receipt, reception =reclamación, reclamo=, claim =reclamar=, to claim =reclamo=, advertisement =recobrar=, to recover =recoger=, to gather, to collect, to take up =recomendar=, to recommend =reconocer, admitir=, to acknowledge =reconvenir=, to scold =recto=, straightforward, straight =recursos=, means, resources =redactar=, to draw up (deeds) =redondo=, round =reducción, rebaja=, reduction, abatement, rebate =reducir=, to reduce =referir=, to refer =reflejo=, reflection =reforma arancelaria=, tariff reform =refrán=, proverb =refrendar=, to countersign =refresco=, refreshment =refundir=, to refund =regadío=, irrigation =regalar=, to present =régimen=, rule, regime =regir=, to rule =regla=, rule, ruler =en regla=, in order =reglamentos=, regulations, bye-laws =regresar=, to come back =rehusar, negarse á=, to refuse =reina=, queen =reinar=, to reign, to rule, to prevail =reino=, kingdom =reir=, to laugh =reírse=, to laugh at, to mock =rejas=, ploughs =relación=, report =relampaguear=, to lighten =reloj=, watch, clock =remesa=, remittance, also shipment =remitir=, to remit, to send =remolacha=, beetroot =remolcar, traer a remolque=, to tow, to take in tow =remover=, to remove, to stir, to poke (the fire) =renglón=, line =reo=, culprit =reparar=, to notice =repasar=, to go over, to look over =repentino=, sudden =repetir=, to repeat =reprensible=, objectionable =representación exclusiva=, sole agency =representante=, representative, agent =representar=, to represent, to act for =requerir=, to require =repulgado, dobladillado=, hemmed =reservar=, to reserve =residir=, to reside =resortes=, springs =con respecto á, respecto de=, with respect to =respetar=, to respect =respeto=, respect =respire=, breath, breathing-time =responder=, to answer =responsible=, responsible (liable for) =resto, restante=, remainder =restos=, remnants =resultado=, result =resumir=, to recapitulate, to state briefly =retardar=, to delay, to be delayed =(los) reunidos=, those present =reunión=, meeting =al revés=, on the wrong side =revista=, review =revocar, contramandar=, to revoke, to countermand =rey=, king =rezumar=, to leak =ricamente=, richly =rico=, rich =riesgo=, risk =río=, river =riqueza=, wealth =rizados, crespolinas=, crimps =rizo (del ala)=, curl (of the brim of a hat) =robar=, to rob, to steal =roble, encina=, oak =rodajas de goma=, rubber heels (revolving) =rogar=, to ask, to beg, to require =rollo=, roll =romperse= (p. p., =roto=), to break =rosa=, rose, pink =rotura=, breakage =ruin=, base, sordid =rumbo=, course (of a ship) =rumor, especie=, rumour

=S=

=sábado=, Saturday =sábana=, sheet (bed) =(á) saber, es decir, viz=. =saber=, to know (through the mind), to know by heart =sabio=, wise =sacar=, to draw out, to get or pull out, to derive, to get back (one's money) =saldo=, settlement, clearing line =salir=, to come out, to go out (up) =salir en=, to come up to (amount) =salubre=, healthy =salvamento=, salvage ¡=salve=! hail! =santo=, holy, saint =sardinas=, sardines =sargento=, sergeant =sastre=, tailor =satines brochados=, brocaded satins =satisfecho=, satisfied =sea que=, whether =sebo (heces de)=, tallow (greaves) =secretario=, secretary =sed=, thirst =seda=, silk =según=, according to =seguir=, to continue, to follow =seguro=, sure, insurance =sellar=, to seal =sello=, seal, postage-stamp =semana=, week =semejante=, similar =semestre=, half-year =Senado=, Senate =señal=, sign, mark =sencillo=, plain, simple =señor=, gentleman =señora=, lady =sentir=, to feel, to be sorry =ser=, to be =(la) serie=, series =ser menester=, to be necessary =servicio=, service =servir=, to serve =Setiembre=, September =si=, if =sí=, oneself =sí=, yes =silla=, chair =siempre= always =sierra mecánica=, sawing machine =(un) si es no es=, just a little bit, ever so little =siguiente=, following =simpático=, pleasant, winsome, taking =simple=, single, simple, plain =sin, sin que=, without =sinceridad=, sincerity =sincere=, sincere =síndico=, trustee =sin embargo=, notwithstanding however =sin mirar a gastos=, regardless of expense =sin novedad=, safely, all well, safe and sound =(un) sinnúmero=, a large number, innumerable =sin precedente=, unprecedented =(los) síntomas=, symptoms =sitio=, spot, place =sobre=, on, upon =sobre= (n.), envelope =sobrecargarse=, to overload oneself =sobre cubierta=, on deck =sobrestadía=, demurrage =sobrios=, quiet (colours) =socarrón=, sly, cunning =sociedad=, society =sociedad anónima= or =por acciones=, limited company =socio=, partner =soda, sosa=, soda =sofá=, sofa, couch =soga=, rope =sol=, sun =solamente, sólo=, only (adv.) =soldado=, soldier =soler=, to be wont, to be accustomed to =solicitar=, to solicit =solidez=, solidity =solo=, only (adj.) =sombrero=, hat =sombrero de copa=, silk hat =someter=, to submit =sonrisa=, smile =soplar=, to blow =soportar=, to put up with =soportes=, bearings =sorprendente=, surprising =sorpresa=, surprise =sosa, soda=, soda =sospechar=, to suspect =su=, his, her, its, their, your =suave=, soft, mellow, gentle =(en) subasta=, (by) auction =subir=, to go, to come, up =subsanar=, to correct =suceder=, to happen, to succeed =sucursal=, branch house =sueldo=, salary, wages =suelo=, ground (soil) =sueño=, sleep =suerte=, fortune, luck =sufrimiento=, suffering =sufrir=, to suffer =sujetapapeles=, paper fasteners =suma=, sum, addition =sumar=, to add =suma redonda=, lump sum =superficie=, surface =suponer=, to suppose =suprimir=, to suppress =sur, sud=, south =surtido=, assortment, selection =suspender los pagos=, to stop payments =(en) suspense=, (in) abeyance

=T=

=tabacos, cigarros, puros=, cigars =tablilla=, board =tablón=, plank =tacharse=, to blame or censure oneself =tacho, paila, pan= (sugar manuf.) =tacones=, heels =tacos=, cues (billiard) =tacto=, feel, touch, tact =tal=, such =tal cual=, as it is =talvez=, perhaps =taller=, workshop =también=, also, too, as well =tambor=, drum (machinery, etc.) =tampoco=, neither, either (after neg.) =tan …. como=, so, as …. as =tapete=, carpet, rug =tarde=, afternoon, evening, late =tardo=, slow =tarea=, task =tarjeta=, card =tasajo=, jerked beef =té=, tea =tejedor=, weaver =tejer=, to weave =tejido elástico=, webbing =tejidos=, textiles, cloths =tela=, cloth =telar=, loom =telas para trajes (de señora)=, dress goods =telas para pantalones=, trouserings =telefonear=, to telephone =tema= (m.), the exercise =tema= (f.), the fear =temporada, estación=, season =temporal=, tormenta, storm =temporalmente=, temporarily =temprano=, early =tenazas=, tongs =tendero=, shopkeeper =tenedores=, forks, holders =tener=, to have, to hold =tener cuenta=, to pay (to be advantageous) =tener en cuenta=, to take into consideration, to bear in mind =tercio=, third =terciopelo=, velvet =terliz=, ticking =terreno=, land, estate =tesoro=, treasure =textil=, textile =(la) tez=, complexion =tienda=, shop =tierno=, tender =tijeras=, scissors =timbre=, stamp =tinta=, ink =tintero=, inkstand =tío,-a=, uncle, aunt =tiro, largura=, length =títulos=, bonds =tocino=, bacon =todavía=, yet, still =todo,-a,-os,-as=, all, every =tomar=, to take =tomar a mal=, to take amiss =tomar la delantera=, to take the start on =tomar vuelo=, to develop, to increase =tonelada=, ton =tonto=, simpleton, foolish =torcer=, to twist =tormenta=, temporal, storm =tornillos=, screws =torno=, lathe =trabajador=, hard-working =trabajar=, to work =trabajar, ir, á porfía=, to vie with =trabajo=, work =traer=, to bring, to carry =traer á remolque (remolcar)=, to tow, to take in tow =trámites (de la ley)=, routine of the law, legal means =tranquilo=, quiet, calm =transportar=, to transport, to convey =tra(n)sporte pagado (franco de porte)=, carriage paid =tra(n)sporte seguido, porte pagadero al destino=, carriage forward =trapiche=, sugar mill =trasmitir=, to convey =traspapelado=, mislaid (of a paper) =traspaso=, goodwill (of a business) =Tratado de arbitraje=, Arbitration Treaty =tratar=, to conduct (business), to treat, to try, to endeavour =travesía=, journey by sea (crossing) =tren=, train =trencilla=, braid =tribunal=, court =trigo=, wheat =trilladores=, threshing (machines) =trinquete=, foremast =tripas de buey=, ox-casings =tripulación=, crew =triste=, sad =trocar=, to exchange =tronar=, to thunder =tropezar=, to stumble =tubo=, pipe =tuercas=, nuts (mach.) =turba=, crowd (motley)

=U=

=ufano=, proud =últimamente=, lately =únicamente=, solely, only =útil=, useful =utilidad=, utility, usefulness, service, profit =uvas=, grapes

=V=

=vacío=, empty ¡=vale=! farewell! =valer=, to be worth =valer la pena=, to be worth while =valer más=, to be preferable =valiente=, brave =valor=, value, worth, courage =valores=, securities =válvula=, valve =vapor=, steamer =vara=, Spanish yard =varar=, to ground (ships) =variedad=, variety =varios=, several =vecino=, neighbour, inhabitant, ratepayer =veintena=, score =vejez=, old age =vela=, candle, sail =velero=, sailing vessel =vencer=, to win, to fall due =vender=, to sell =venir=, to come =venir á menos=, to come down in the world, to decline =venta=, sale =ventaja=, advantage =ventana=, window =ver=, to see =verano=, summer =verdad=, truth =verde=, green =vergüenza=, shame =verificarse=, to take place =vez, veces=, time, times =en vez de=, instead of =vía=, way, route, via =viajador=, traveller, navigator =viajante=, traveller (commercial) =viajar=, to travel =viaje de ida=, outward journey (trip) =viaje de vuelta=, homeward journey (trip) =viajero=, traveller, tourist, etc. =vida=, life, living =vidriado=, glass ware =viejo=, old =viento=, wind =Viernes=, Friday =viga=, beam =vigilar=, to watch over =villa, población=, town =viñas=, vineyards =vinícola=, wine (adj.) =vino=, wine =violeta=, violet =virtualmente=, practically =virtud=, virtue =visitar=, to visit, to call upon, to wait upon =vista=, sight, view =á la vista=, at sight =visto que=, seeing that =viudo=, widower =vivamente=, vividly, earnestly =vivir=, to live, to reside =vivo=, alive, lively, vivid, bright (colour) =vocablo, palabra=, word =vocabulario=, vocabulary =volante=, fly-wheel =volar=, to fly =volcar=, to capsize =voluntad=, will, goodwill =volver=, to turn, to go, to come back =volverse=, to become =á la vuelta=, carried forward =de la vuelta=, brought forward

=Y=

=ya=, already, now, yet, etc. =yacer=, to lie =yerno, hijo político=, son-in-law =y pico (20 y pico, etc.)=, odd (20 odd, etc.) =yute, jute=, jute

=Z=

=zanjar=, to compromise =zapatos=, shoes =zarazas=, cotton prints =zinc=, zinc =zorra=, fox

II. ENGLISH-SPANISH.

=A=

=to abandon=, abandonar, desinteresarse =abatement=, rebaja, reducción =(in) abeyance=, (en) suspenso =to be able=, poder =to abolish=, abolir =about=, próximamente, aproximadamente =abroad=, al extranjero =absence of=, falta de =absolutely=, absolutamente =absurd=, irrisorio =abundant=, cuantioso, largo de talle =abuse=, abuso =to accede=, acceder =accident=, accidente =to accomplish=, cumplir =according to=, según, conforme á =to accost=, abordar =account sales=, cuenta de venta =accurate=, exacto =to accuse=, acusar =to be accustomed=, soler =to ache=, doler =acute, artful=, corrido =to acknowledge=, reconocer, admitir =to acknowledge receipt=, acusar recibo =to acquaint with=, informar, poner en conocimiento =acquaintance=, conocimiento, conocido =to acquire=, adquirir =to act=, obrar =to act as=, funcionar de, proceder como =to act for=, representar =action=, acción =active=, activo =acts=, actas =to add=, añadir =to add=, sumar =addition=, suma =address=, dirección =to address oneself (to)=, dirigirse (á) =adequate=, adecuado, proporcionado =to adhere=, adherir =to adjust=, ajustar =adjustment=, ajuste =to admit=, admitir, acoger =advance=, anticipo =advantage=, ventaja =to take advantage=, aprovecharse =to be advantageous=, tener cuenta =adverse=, contrario =to advertise=, anunciar =advertisement=, anuncio, reclamo =advice=, aviso, consejo =to advise=, avisar =adzes=, azuelas =affair=, asunto =after=, después =afternoon=, tarde =against=, contra, en contra de =agency (sole)=, agencia, representación exclusiva =to agglomerate=, aglomerar =to agree=, convenir, acordar =agreeable=, agradable =agreement=, contrato, convenio, arreglo =agricultural=, agrícola =aim=, blanco =air pumps=, bombas de aire =alert=, alerta =alive=, vivo =to allege=, alegar =to allude to, to hint=, aludir a =to make an allowance=, bonificar =already=, ya =also=, también =to alter=, cambiar =although=, aunque, por más que =altogether, quite=, de todo punto =always=, siempre =ambassador=, embajador =amount=, importe, cantidad =to amount to=, importar en =ample=, amplio, cuantioso =to anchor=, anclar =ancient=, antiguo =angry=, enfadado =annoyed=, disgustado =to answer=, contestar, responder =anterior=, anterior =to anticipate=, prever =anticipation=, anticipatión =anxious to=, ansioso de =to be anxious to=, tener empeño =anyone=, alguno =anything=, algo =apartment=, cuarto =to appeal=, apelar =to appear=, aparecer, parecer =apple=, manzana =to appoint=, nombrar =to appreciate=, apreciar =appreciation=, estima =to approach=, aproximarse, abordar =approximately=, próximamente =April=, Abril =arbiter=, árbitro =Arbitration Treaty=, Tratado de Arbitraje =architect=, arquitecto =archive=, archive =arduous=, arduo =to argue=, argüir =arm=, brazo =army=, ejército =to arrange=, arreglar, disponer =arrangement=, arreglo =to arrive=, llegar =ash=, fresno =as it is=, tal cual =as it were=, por decirlo así =to ask=, pedir, rogar =assets and liabilities=, active y pasivo =to assist=, asistir =as soon as=, no bien, luego que =as soon as possible=, á la mayor brevedad =assortment=, surtido =as well=, también =at best=, á mejor andar =at foot=, al pie =at least=, al menos =at length=, detenidamente =at once=, en seguida, luego =at sight=, á la vista =to attain=, lograr =attainment=, logro =to attempt=, probar =to attend=, asistir, atender á =attention=, atención =attention=! ¡ojo! ¡atención! =at the rate of=, á razón de =attitude=, actitud =to attract=, atraer =to attribute=, atribuir =attribution=, atribución =(by) auction=, (en) subasta =August=, Agosto =autumn=, otoño =to avail oneself of=, aprovecharse de =available=, disponible =average=, mediano, término medio, avería =free of particular average=, franco de avería particular =averse to=, ajeno á =to avoid=, evitar =award=, dictamen =axe=, hacha =axle-shaft=, árbol de eje

=B=

=back=, espalda =bacon=, tocino =bad=, malo =very bad=, pésimo =badly=, mal =to be baffled=, llevar chasco =bagging=, arpillera =baize=, bayeta =to bake=, cocer =ball=, bola =ball (of cotton)=, ovillo (de algodón) =bank=, banco =bank holiday=, fiesta del comercio =bank notes=, billetes, notas de banco =bank (river)=, orilla =bankruptcy=, quiebra =bargain (cheap purchase)=, ganga =barley=, cebada =barrister=, abogado =base=, sordid, ruin =basis=, base =to bathe=, bañar =batiste=, batista =to be=, estar, estarse, ser =beam=, viga =beard=, barba, barbas =beardless youth=, mozalbete =bearings=, soportes, cojinetes =to bear in mind=, tener en cuenta =bearish, bear= (exch.), bajista =beautiful=, hermoso =beauty=, belleza =to become=, hacerse, volverse, llegar á ser =bed, bedstead=, cama, armazón de cama =beech=, haya =beef (jerked)=, carne (seca) =beer=, cerveza =beetroot=, remolacha =before (time)=, antes (de) =before (place)=, ante, delante de =to beg=, rogar =beginning=, principio =behaviour=, conducta =behind=, detrás =to believe=, creer =beloved=, querido =below=, abajo =belt=, cinturón =belting (machinery)=, correas =bench=, banco =beneficent=, benéfico =benefit=, beneficio =besides=, amén de =to betray=, atraicionar =better=, mejor =between, amongst=, entre =between decks=, entrepuentes =bicycle=, bicicleta =bill=, giro =billiards=, billar =bill market=, los cambios =bill of exchange=, letra =bill of lading=, conocimiento =to bind (books)=, encuadernar =to bind oneself=, obligarse =birch=, abedul =black=, negro =blacking=, betún =blame=, culpa =to blame oneself=, tacharse =blanket=, manta, frazada =blast furnace=, altos hornos =blind=, ciego =blotting paper=, papel secante =to blow=, soplar =blue=, azul =boar=, jabalí =board=, tablilla =to board=, abordar =boat=, buque, navío, barco =bobbin=, bobina =body=, cuerpo =to boil=, hervir, bullir =boiler=, caldera =bold, daring=, atrevido =bond=, obligación, título =bonded warehouses=, almacenes fiscales =bone=, hueso =to book (orders)=, asentar =book=, libro =book debts=, fiados =book-shelf=, estante =boom=, hinchazón =boot=, bota =boots=, botines =both=, ambos =bourse=, bolsa =box=, caja =boy=, muchacho =braid=, trencilla =branch=, ramo =branch house=, sucursal =brand=, marca =brand new=, novísimo =bread=, pan =breakdown=, quebrantamiento, daño =to break out=, estallar =breath=, respiro =breathing-time=, respiro =breeze=, brisa =brevity=, brevedad =brief=, corto =brig=, bergantín =to bring=, traer =to bring an action=, poner pleito =to bring upon oneself=, buscarse =brisk=, activo, animado =broad beans=, habas =brocade=, brocado, tela labrada =broker=, corredor =broom=, escoba =brother=, hermano =brother-in-law=, cuñado =brought forward=, de la vuelta =brown=, moreno =brush=, cepillo =bucket=, cubo, caldero =building=, edificio, local =bullish, bull (exch.)=, alcista =bundle (of papers)=, legajo (de papeles) =bunker=, carbonera, pañol =bunting=, lanillas para banderas =to burst=, estallar =business=, negocio, negocios =business (occupations)=, quehaceres =but=, pero, mas =butter=, manteca, mantequilla (S. America) =button=, botón =bye-law=, reglamento =bye-products=, productos accesorios

=C=

=cabbages=, berzas, coles =cable=, cable =cablegram=, cablegrama =to calculate=, calcular =to calculate on=, contar con =calculation=, cálculo =calico=, percal =to call=, llamar =to be called=, llamarse =to call at=, hacer escala (ships), pasar por, visitar =to call together=, convocar =to be called=, llamarse =calm=, tranquilo =to cancel=, anular =candidly=, con el corazón en la mano =candle=, vela =cane=, caña =canned=, en latas =cap=, gorra, gorro =caprice, whim=, antojo =to capsize=, volcar =captain=, capitán =to capture=, coger =card=, tarjeta =care=, cuidado =to take care=, cuidar =carefully=, cuidadosamente =cargo=, cargamento =carnation=, clavel =carpet=, alfombra, tapete =carriage forward=, tra(n)sporte seguido, porte pagadero al destino =carriage paid=, tra(n)sporte pagado, franco de porte =carried forward=, á la vuelta =to carry=, llevar, traer =to carry into effect=, llevar á cabo =cart=, carro =case=, caja =case, lawsuit=, proceso =in case=, en caso que =cash=, dinero efectivo =for cash=, al contado =in cash=, en efectivo, en metálico =cashier=, cajero =cask=, barrica, pipa =to cast=, echar =castillian=, castellano =cat=, gato =catalogue=, catálogo =to catch=, coger =cauldron (small)=, caldero =cautious=, cauteloso, cauto =to cede=, ceder =to be celebrated=, celebrarse =celebrated=, célebre =cellar=, bodega =to censure, to blame, oneself=, tacharse =certain=, cierto =to certify=, certificar =chair=, silla =change=, cambio =to change=, cambiar =charcoal=, carbón vegetal =to charge=, cobrar =to take charge=, encargarse =to charter=, fletar =cheap=, barato =cheapening=, abarata miento =cheese=, queso =chemicals=, productos químicos =chemist=, boticario =cheque=, cheque =to cherish (the hope)=, abrigar =chief=, principal =child=, niño =chimney=, chimenea =chin=, barba, barbilla =chivalry=, hidalguía =chocolate=, chocolate =to choose=, escoger, elegir =Christmas=, Navidad =cigars=, cigarros, puros, tabacos =cinnamon=, canela =to circulate=, circular =to cite=, citar =city=, ciudad =claim=, reclame, reclamación =to claim=, reclamar =clean=, limpio =to clean=, limpiar =clear=, claro =to clear=, despejar =clearing-house=, banco de liquidación =clearing-line=, saldo =clearly=, claramente, claro =clerk (chief)=, dependiente (primer) =clever=, hábil =client=, cliente =climate=, el clima =climatic=, climatológico =climax=, colmo =clock=, reloj =cloth=, tela, tejido, paño =cloves=, clavos =coal=, carbón de piedra =coal-mine=, mina de carbón =coarse=, basto =coast=, costa =coat=, americana, casaca =cock (machinery)=, grifo =coffee=, café =cold=, frío =to collect (money)=, recoger, cobrar =collection=, colección =colliery=, mina de carbón =colonial produce=, coloniales =colour (fast, loose)=, color (sólido, firme, falso, fugitivo) =colourings=, coloridos =column=, columna =to come=, venir =to come back=, regresar, volver =to come down=, bajar =to come down in the world=, venir á menos =to come out=, salir =to come up to (an amount)=, salir en =to commence=, comenzar, empezar, principiar, estrenarse =commerce=, comercio =commercial=, comercial =commission agent=, comisionista =to commit oneself=, comprometerse =common=, común, basto =company (limited)=, compañia anónima, por acciones =to compel=, obligar =to compensate=, compensar =competitor=, competidor, contrincante =to complain=, quejarse =complete=, completo =complexion=, la tez =to compromise=, zanjar, comprometer =to conceive=, concebir =to concern=, concerner =concern=, empresa =concisely=, concisamente =to conclude (a bargain)=, concluir, cerrar (un trato) =conduct=, conducta =to conduct (business)=, tratar =to confess=, confesar =confidence=, confianza =connecting rod=, biela =connection=, conexión =connection=, clientéle, clientela =to consider=, considerar =considerate, thoughtful=, comedido =to consign=, consignar =consignee=, consignatario =consignment=, consignación =consumer=, consumidor =contain, to be able to=, or =to be able to be contained=, caber =content, contentment=, contento =contents=, contenido =continually=, continuamente =to continue=, continuar, seguir =contraband=, contrabando =contract=, contrato =contractor=, destajista =contrary=, contrario =to contribute=, contribuir =contrivance=, mecanísmo, medio =to contrive to be=, llegar á ser =to contrive=, lograr =control=, dominio =convenient=, conveniente =to convey=, tra(n)sportar, transmitir =to convince=, convencer =to cook=, cocer =copper=, cobre =copy book=, copiador =corded=, acordonado =cords, corduroy=, pana acordonada =corporal=, cabo =to correct=, subsanar, corregir =correspondence=, correspondencia =correspondent=, corresponsal =cost, insurance and freight (C.I.F.)=, costo, flete y seguro (C.F.S.) =cotton (spot)=, algodón disponible =cotton market=, mercado algodonero =cotton mill=, fábrica de algodón =cotton prints=, zarazas =to counsel=, aconsejar =to count=, contar =to countermand=, contramandar, revocar =to countersign=, refrendar =country=, país, patria, campo =couple=, par =coupled with=, junto á =couplings=, conexiones =courage, valor=, aliento, ánimo =course (of ship)=, rumbo =of course=, por de contado =court=, tribunal =courteously=, cortésmente =cousin=, primo =to cover=, cubrir =covered=, cubierto =to covet=, codiciar =cram full=, abarrotado =crank-shaft=, árbol de cigüeñal =cream=, crema =credit=, crédito =to credit=, abonar, acreditar =creditors' meeting=, junta de acreedores =crew=, tripulación =crimps=, crespolinas, rizados =crockery=, loza =crop=, cosecha =to cross=, atravesar, cruzar =crowd (motley)=, turba =cry=, grito =cubic=, cúbico =cudgel=, garrote =cue (billiards)=, taco =culprit=, reo =cupboard=, armario =curl (of hat brim)=, rizo (del ala) =currant=, pasas de Corinto =current=, actual, corriente =curtailment=, limitación =custom=, costumbre =customer=, cliente =custom house official=, guardia aduanera =custom house tariff=, arancel =customs=, derechos =to cut=, cortar =to cut (fig.)=, herir =cutting=, corte =cylinder=, cilindro

=D=

=damage=, avería, daño, perjuicio =to damage=, dañar =damask=, damasco =danger=, peligro =dangerous=, arriesgado peligroso =daring, bold=, atrevido =date=, fecha =date palm=, palmera =to date, up to date=, hasta la fecha =dated=, fecha de =dates=, dátiles =daughter-in-law=, nuera, hija política =to dawn=, alborear, amanecer =day=, día =lay day=, día de estadía =days of demurrage=, días de contraestadía =day before yesterday=, anteayer =day book=, diario =to dazzle=, deslumbrar =dealers=, operadores =fair dealing=, equidad =deal=, especulación =to deal=, tratar =dealings=, operaciones =dear=, caro, querido =debenture=, obligación =to debit=, adeudar, cargar, debitar =debt=, deuda =decadence=, decadencia =deceased=, difunto =December=, Diciembre =to decide=, decidir, decidirse =decidedly=, decididamente =decision=, decisión, dictamen =below deck=, bajo cubierta =on deck=, sobre cubierta =to declaim=, declamar =to declare=, declarar =decline=, baja =to decline=, venir á menos =to decree=, decretar =deeds=, hechos =deeds (law)=, actas =defect=, defecto =to defer=, diferir =to define=, definir =definite=, definitivo =degree=, grado, graduación =delay=, demora =to delay=, demorar, postergar =delegate=, delegado =to commit a delinquency=, delinquir =to deliver=, entregar =delivery=, entrega =to demand=, pedir, demandar =demurrage=, sobrestadía =to deny=, negar =to depend on=, depender de =to deplore=, deplorar =depôt=, depósito =to depress=, deprimir =to derive=, sacar =design=, dibujo, diseño =desire=, gana, deseo =to desire=, apetecer, desear =desk=, pupitre, banco =writing desk=, escritorio =despicable=, despreciable =detailed=, detallado =details=, detalles, pormenores, particulares =deterioration=, empeoramiento =to develop=, desarrollar, tomar vuelo =development=, desarrollo, fomento =to devote oneself=, dedicarse =devotion=, devoción =diapers=, lienzos adamascados =dictionary=, diccionario =different=, diferente, distinto =difficult=, difícil, arduo =difficulty=, dificultad =diligence=, diligencia =to direct=, dirigir =disappointed (to be)=, llevar chasco =disarmament=, desarme =to discard=, rechazar =to discharge=, descargar =to disconcert=, desanimar =to feel discouraged=, desanimarse =discreet=, discreto =to discuss=, discutir =disgusted=, disgustado =dishonour=, deshonra =to dispense with=, prescindir de =displeased=, disgustado =to dispose=, disponer =to distinguish=, distinguir =district=, distrito =disturbance=, disturbio =disturbed=, perturbado, disturbado =division (Govt. office)=, negociado =to do=, hacer =dock=, dique =doctor=, médico =doctrine=, doctrina =document=, documento =dog=, perro =door=, puerta =dot=, punto =doubt=, duda =down quilt=, colcha de plumón =dozen=, docena =draft=, giro =to drain=, agotar =draughtsman=, diseñador =to draw a bill=, girar =to draw near=, aproximarse =to draw out=, sacar =to draw up (deeds)=, redactar =dress goods=, telas para trajes =drill=, dril =to drizzle=, lloviznar =drum (machinery)=, tambor =to duplicate=, duplicar =during=, durante

=E=

=each=, cada =eager=, ansioso, deseoso =eagle=, águila =early=, temprano =to earn=, ganar =to be earnest=, tener empeño =earnestly=, vivamente =ease=, facilidad =east=, este =Easter=, Pascua =to eat=, comer =to economise=, ahorrar, economizar =to effect=, efectuar =effort=, esfuerzo =with great effort=, á duras penas =either= (after negative), tampoco =to elaborate=, elaborar =elegantly=, elegantemente =to embark=, embarcar =embarrassment=, embarazo apuro =to embezzle=, malversar =embossed=, grabado =to embrace=, abrazar, abarcar =embroidered=, bordado =to employ=, emplear =to be employed=, emplearse =employer=, jefe =empty=, vacío =to enable=, poner en condiciones =to enclose=, incluir, adjuntar =enclosed=, adjunto =to encounter=, exponerse á, arrostrar =encouragement=, fomento, estímulo =end=, cabo, fin =to endeavour, to treat, to try=, tratar =to endorse=, endosar =to engage=, empeñar =engagement=, empeño =engine=, máquina =engineer=, ingeniero =to enhance=, elevar =to enjoy=, gozar, disfrutar de =to enjoy oneself=, divertirse =to enlarge=, agrandar =enlightened=, ilustrado =to enlist=, alistar =to be enough=, bastar =to entangle=, embrollar =to enter=, entrar en =enterprise=, empresa =enterprising=, emprendedor =to entrust=, confiar á =envy=, envidia =epoch=, época =equal=, igual =to equal=, igualar =equipment=, equipo =equity=, equidad =error=, error =to escape=, escapar =to escape one's notice=, pasársele por alto á uno =especially=, mayormente =to establish=, establecer =to esteem=, estimar =eternally=, eternamente =this evening=, esta tarde =ever=, nunca =for ever=, eternamente =every=, cada =everybody=, todo el mundo, todos =exact=, exacto =examination=, examen =to exceed=, exceder =exceedingly=, mucho =excellent, very good=, óptimo =to exchange=, trocar, cambiar =exclusive=, exclusivo =to excuse=, dispensar, disculpar =to execute=, ejecutar =exercise (gram.)=, tema (el) =to exert oneself=, afanarse =to exhaust=, apurar, agotar =to exhibit=, exhibir =to expect=, esperar =to experience=, experimentar =experienced=, experto =to experiment=, experimentar =expert=, perito =to explain=, explicar, explanar =to exploit=, explotar =export=, exportación =exporter=, exportador =to expose oneself to=, exponerse á, arrostrar =to extend=, extender =extension of time for payment=, moratorium, moratoria =extinguished=, apagado =eye=, ojo

=F=

=face=, cara =to face=, hacer frente =to facilitate=, allanar =facility=, facilidad =fact=, hecho =to fade=, desteñir =to fail=, faltar =failure=, éxito malo =failure=, fracaso =fair=, equitativo, justo =fairness=, equidad =faithful=, fiel =to fall=, caer =fall= (n.), caída, baja =to fall due=, vencer =to fall through=, fracasar =fame=, fama =famous=, famoso =fancies=, fantasías =far away=, lejos =farewell=! ¡vale! =farthing=, fardín =by fast train=, á grande velocidad =father=, padre =fatherland=, patria =fault=, falta =at fault=, culpado =favour=, obsequio =favourable=, favorable =fear=, miedo, tema (f.) =February=, Febrero =feel=, tacto =to feel=, sentir =fender=, guardafuego =few=, pocos, (-as) =field=, campo =fig-tree=, higuera =to fight=, batirse, luchar, pelear =figured=, labrado =figures=, cifras =file=, ensartapapeles, guardapapeles =to file (papers), to string (beads)=, ensartar =to file a petition in bankruptcy=, declararse en quiebra =to finance=, comanditar =to find=, encontrar, hallar =fine=, hermoso =fine= (n.), multa =finish=, acabado, apresto, aderezo =to finish=, acabar =fir=, abeto =fire-arms=, armas de fuego =firebricks=, ladrillos refractarios =firm, fast, strong=, fuerte =firm=, casa =firm= (adj.), firme, fijo =firmness=, firmeza =to fix=, fijar =fixed=, fijo =to flatter oneself=, lisonjearse =flange=, reborde =flax=, lino =flourishing=, floreciente =flower=, flor =flower-stand=, portaramillete (portarramillete), maceta, florero =to fly=, volar =fly-wheel=, volante =to fold=, plegar =to follow=, seguir =fond of=, aficionado á =food-stuffs=, géneros alimenticios =foolish=, tonto =at foot=, al pie =footwear=, calzado =for=, para, por =to force=, forzar =forehead=, la frente =foreign=, extranjero =foreign to=, ajeno á =foreigner=, extranjero =foreman=, capataz =foremast=, trinquete =fork=, tenedor =form=, boletín, forma =formal=, formal =formerly=, antes =fortunately=, afortunadamente =fortune=, fortuna, suerte =to forward=, encaminar =to found=, fundar =foundry=, altos hornos =fountain=, fuente =fox=, zorra =frame,-ing (mach.)=, armadura =free=, libre =free of particular average (F.P.A.)=, franco de avería particular =to freeze=, helar =freight=, flete =to freight=, fletar =French beans=, judías =frequently=, frecuentemente =Friday=, viernes =friend=, amigo =friendly=, amistoso =friendship=, amistad =to frighten=, amedrentar =to be frightened=, espantarse =frilled=, alechugado =fringe=, franja =frock coat=, levita =front=, el frente =frost=, hielo, escarcha =frost-bitten=, tornado por la escarcha =fruit=, fruta =fruit= (of labour), fruto =full=, lleno =in full=, entero (por) =funds=, fondos =furious=, enfurecído, furioso =furniture=, muebles =blast furnace=, altos hornos =fustian=, fustán

=G=

=to gain=, ganar =gallon=, galón =garden=, jardín =gardener=, jardinero, hortelano =to gather=, recoger =gaudy= (colour), chillón =gearing=, engranaje =general=, general =generous=, generoso =gentle=, blando, suave =gentleman=, señor =gentleman by birth=, hidalgo (hijodalgo) =to get=, conseguir, obtener =to get back= (money), sacar =to get on well=, llevarse bien =to get out=, sacar =to get to know=, enterarse =ginghams=, guingas, carranclanes =to give=, dar =to give back=, devolver =to give on lease=, alquilar =to give thanks=, dar las gracias =to gladden=, alegrar =glassware=, vidriado =glove=, guante =glutted=, abarrotado =to go=, ir, andar =to go away=, marcharse, alejarse =God=, Dios =to go down=, bajar =gold=, oro =goloshes=, chanclos =good=, bueno, el bien =goods=, géneros =goods, merchandise=, mercancía =goodwill=, voluntad =goodwill= (of a business), traspaso =to go out=, salir =to go out (fire)=, apagarse =to go over=, repasar =to go round=, circular =gossip=, charla =to govern=, gobernar =government=, gobierno =grace, gracefulness=, gracia =gradation=, gradación =grain=, grano =grain market=, mercado de granos =to grant=, conceder =grape=, uva =gratis=, de balde =gratitude=, gratitud =gratuitous=, gratuito =gratuity=, gratificación =great=, gran, grande =great grandfather=, bisabuelo =greatly=, mucho =greed=, codicia =green=, verde =green peas=, guisantes =grey=, gris =to grind=, moler =ground=, suclo =group=, grupo, agrupación =to grow dark=, anochecer =to guarantee=, garantir, garantizar

=H=

=to hail=, granizar =hail=! ¡salve! =hair=, cabello=, pelo =half=, medio=, la mitad =ham=, jamón =to hammer=, machacar =hammers=, martillos =hand=, mano =to hand=, pasar, entregar =handkerchief=, pañuelo =handle=, mango =to hang=, colgar =to happen=, ocurrir, suceder, acertar á =harbour=, puerto =hard=, duro =hare=, liebre =harrows=, rastrillos =harvest, harvest time=, cosecha =haste=, prisa =to hasten=, apresurar (se) =hat=, sombrero =hatchets=, hachuelas =to have=, tener, haber =to have just=, acabar de =head=, cabeza =headache=, dolor de cabeza =health (indifferent)=, delicado de salud =healthy=, salubre =to heap up=, amontar =to hear=, oir =heat=, calor =heaven=, cielo =heavy=, pesado =heavy sea=, mar alborotada =hedged in=, aislado =heels=, tacones =to help=, asistir, ayudar =help (not to be able to)=, no poder menos de =hemmed=, dobladillado, repulgado =hemp, Manilla hemp=, cáñamo, abacá =hemstitched=, con dobladilla de ojo =her=, su =here=, aquí, acá =herewith=, adjunto =hides=, cueros =to hinder=, impedir =to hint, to allude=, aludir á =to hire=, alquilar =his=, su =history=, historia =to hit it=, dar en el clavo =hitch=, contratiempo =hoist=, ascensor =hold (ship)=, bodega =to hold=, tener =to hold up=, mantener =holder=, tenedor =hollow-ware=, ollería =holy, saint=, santo =honesty=, honradez =honorary=, honorario, gratuito =honour=, honor =to honour=, honrar =hook (clothes)=, garabato =horse=, caballo =hose=, manga =hose (half)=, medias, calcetines =hosiery=, mediería =hotel=, fonda, hotel =hour=, hora =house, firm=, casa =house (branch)=, sucursal =hub=, buje =hundred=, cien, ciento =hurry=, prisa =to hurt=, doler =husband=, marido, esposo

=I=

=if=, si =idleness, inertia=, inercia =ignoble=, innoble =ill=, enfermo, malo =to illustrate=, ilustrar =illustrious=, ilustre =immediate=, inmediato =imperfection=, defecto =importance=, importancia =imports=, importaciones =to impose=, imponer =impropriety=, inconveniencia =to improve=, mejorar =improvement=, mejora, mejoría =in case=, en caso que =inclination=, gana =to include=, incluir, abarcar =inconvenience=, inconveniente =to increase=, aumentar, tomar vuelo =indemnity=, indemnización =to indicate=, indicar =industry=, industria =inferior=, inferior, basto =an infinite number=, una infinidad =infinitesimal=, ínfimo =to inform=, imponer, informar =information=, informes =to infringe=, atropellar por =in full=, por entero =infuriated=, enfurecido =ingratitude=, ingratitud =inhabitants=, habitantes, vecinos =injunction=, mandato =injury=, daño =ink=, tinta =inkstand=, tintero =in order=, en regla, de conformidad =in proportion as=, á medida que =inside=, dentro de =to insist=, insistir, porfiar, machacar =by instalments=, á plazos =instant (month)=, actual, corriente =instead of=, en lugar de, en vez de =instruction=, disposición, instrucción =insurance=, seguro =insurance policy=, póliza de seguro =to insure=, asegurar =intelligence=, inteligencia =to intend=, proponerse, intentar =intention=, intención =interest=, interés =interesting=, interesante =interim=, provisorio, interino =interior=, interior =to interpret=, interpretar =to intervene=, intervenir, mediar =interview=, intervista =in the long run=, á la larga =to introduce (one to another)=, presentar =in truth=, á la verdad =in vain=, en balde =to invest=, invertir (dinero) =to investigate=, averiguar, apurar =to invoice=, facturar =invoice=, factura =invoice book=, libro de facturas =irrigation=, regardío =iron=, hierro =iron-clad=, acorazado =iron, pig=, lingotes de hierro =ironware=, ferretería =island=, isla =isolated=, aislado =to issue=, emitir, publicar =its=, su

=J=

=Jack (machinery)=, gato =jacket=, americana, chaqueta, casaca =jaconets=, chaconadas =January=, Enero =jeans=, coquillos =jerked beef=, carne seca, tasajo =jobs=, géneros imperfectos =journey (by sea)=, travesía =homeward journey=, viaje de vuelta =outward journey=, viaje de ida =judicious=, juicioso =juicy=, jugoso =July=, Julio =June=, Junio =just=, justo, cabal =just a little bit=, un si es no es =jute=, jute, yute =to justify=, justificar

=K=

=keen=, agudo =kind=, bondadoso =kindness=, amabilidad =king=, rey =kingdom=, reino =knife=, cuchillo =to know (a person, thing)=, conocer =to know (by heart)=, saber =knowledge=, conocimiento, doctrina

=L=

=label=, etiqueta, rótulo =labour=, labor, mano de obra =laborious=, laborioso =lace=, encaje =to lack=, carecer, faltar =lad=, muchacho =lady=, señora =land=, terreno =landlord=, propietario =language=, el idioma, la lengua =lard=, lardo, manteca de puerco =large=, grande =large number=, (un) sinnúmero =larger=, mayor =to last=, durar =late (deceased)=, difunto =late=, tarde =lately=, últimamente =later=, más adelante =lathe=, torno =to laugh, to laugh at=, reirse =law=, ley =lawns=, linones, olanes, batistas =lawsuit=, proceso =lawyer=, abogado =to lay before one=, presentar =lay days=, días de estadía =lazy=, holgazán =lead=, plomo =to lead=, conducir =to leak=, abrir agua, rezumar =leakage=, merma =to learn=, aprender =to leave=, dejar =ledger=, libro mayor =left=, izquierda =leg=, pierna =legal means=, trámites de la ley =lemon=, limón =to lend=, prestar =lesson=, lección =lest=, no sea que, de miedo que =to let=, dejar =letter=, carta, escrito =level=, nivel =to level=, allanar =liabilities=, pasivo, pasividades =liable for=, responsable =library=, biblioteca =to lie in bed=, guardar cama =life=, vida =lifeless=, desanimado =lift=, ascensor =light (colour)=, claro =to lighten=, relampaguear =to like=, gustar á uno =limit=, límite =to limit=, limitar =limitation=, limitación =limited company=, sociedad anónima, por acciones =line=, línea =line (of business)=, ramo =linen damask=, alemanisco =linens=, lienzos =linens (unbleached)=, lienzos morenos =lining=, forro =to liquidate=, liquidar =to listen=, escuchar =little=, poco (adv.), pequeño (adj.) =to live=, vivir =lively=, vivo =living=, vida =to load=, cargar =loaf=, pan =loan=, empréstito =lobster=, langosta =lock=, cerradura =to lock=, cerrar con llave =lock-out=, cierre =locomotive=, locomotora =long=, largo =to look=, mirar =to look for=, buscar, apetecer =looking up (market)=, haber mejora en =look out=! ¡ojo!, atención! =to look over=, repasar =loom=, telar =loose colours=, colores fugitives =to lose=, perder =loss=, pérdida quebranto =lot=, partida =cheap lot=, ganga =job lot=, imperfectos =to love=, amar =love=, amor =luck=, suerte =lucky=, dichoso, afortunado =lump sum=, suma redonda

=M=

=machine=, máquina =machinery=, maquinaria =mad=, loco =maidservant=, criada =to maintain (oneself)=, mantener (se) =maize=, maíz =to make=, hacer =to make a mistake=, equivocarse =to make a slip of the tongue=, correrse =to make a start=, principiar, estrenarse =main mast=, palo mayor =to make fun of=, burlarse =to make good=, compensar =to make one's appearance=, aparecer =to make over=, ceder =to make up=, confeccionar =to make up one's mind=, decidir (se) =man=, hombre =manager=, gerente, administrador =to manifest=, manifestar =manner=, manera, modo =manservant=, criado =manufacturer=, fabricante =marble=, mármol =March=, Marzo =margarine=, margarina =mark=, marca, señal =market=, mercado =market-place=, plaza =to marry=, casar (se) con =masonry=, mampostería =master=, amo, maestro =master spinner=, contramaestre de filatura =to match=, igualar =matches=, fósforos =matter=, asunto =to matter=, importar =May=, mayo =mayor=, alcalde =means=, medio =in the meantime=, en el ínterin =meanwhile=, mientras tanto =measure=, medida =meat=, carne =mechanism=, mecanísmo =to meet=, encontrar =to meet (bills)=, hacer frente =to meet requirements=, corresponder á las necesidades =meeting=, reunión, junta, mitín =megaphone=, bocina =mellow=, suave =member=, miembro =to mention=, citar, mencionar, hacer mención =merchandise, goods=, mercancía =merchant=, comerciante, negociante =method=, método =metre=, metro =mild=, apacible =mile=, milla =milk=, la leche =milliner=, modista =million=, millón =mind=, la mente =miner=, minero =minimum=, mínimo =minister=, ministro =ministry=, ministerio =mint of money=, dineral =miser, miserly=, avaro, avariento =misfortune=, desgracia, quebranto =mishap=, quebranto, contratiempo =mislaid (of a paper)=, traspapelado =mistake=, equivocación, error =mizzen mast=, palo de mesana =to mock=, reírse =mohair=, moer =Monday=, lunes =money=, dinero =money market=, mercado bursátil =month=, mes =monthly=, mensual =moratorium=, moratoria =more=, más =morning=, mañana =morocco leather=, cordobán =mortgage=, hipoteca =to mortgage=, hipotecar =mother=, madre =motive power=, fuerza motriz =motor-car=, automóvil =motor-boat=, barca á motor, automóvil =mountain=, monte, montaña =mounting (machinery)=, montaje =mourning=, luto =mouth=, boca =to move=, mover =much=, mucho =muffler=, bufanda =municipality=, concejo, cabildo, ayuntamiento, corporación =museum=, museo =muslin=, muselina =must=, deber =muster=, agrupación

=N=

=nail=, clavo =nainsook=, nansú =name=, nombre, fama =nankeen=, nanquín =nation=, nación, país =native=, indígena =near= (adj.), cercano =near to=, junto a, cerca de =necessary=, necesario =to be necessary=, ser menester =to need=, haber menester, precisar =needle=, aguja =neighbour=, competitor, contrincante, vecino, prójimo =neither=, tampoco =net=, neto, líquido =net revenue=, ingresos netos =new=, nuevo =news=, noticias =newspaper=, periódico =next=, próximo =nickel-plated=, niquelado =night, evening=, noche =nobleness=, hidalguía nobleza =non-acceptance=, falta de aceptación =no one=, ninguno =north=, norte =nose=, nariz =note=, esquela, nota =note of hand=, pagaré =nothing=, nada =for nothing=, de balde =notice=, aviso =notice (of dismissal)=, aviso de despedida =to notice=, advertir, reparar =notwithstanding=, no obstante, sin embargo =November=, Noviembre =now=, ahora =number=, número =nuts (mach.)=, tuercas

=O=

=oak=, roble, encina =oats=, avena =object=, objeto =objection=, dificultad =objectionable=, reprensible =obligation=, empeño, obligación =to oblige=, complacer, agradar, contentar =to observe=, observar =to obstruct=, obstruir =to obtain=, conseguir, obtener =occasion=, ocasión =occupations=, quehaceres =to occur=, ocurrir =ocean=, océano =October=, Octubre =Octroi duties=, impuesto de consumos =octroi office=, fielato =odd (20 odd)=, y pico (veinte y pico) =of course=, por de contado =offer=, ofrecimiento, oferta =to offer=, ofrecer =office=, oficina, despacho =office (lawyer's)=, bufete (de abogado) =office boy (jocularly)=, hortera =of no avail=, de balde =often=, á menudo =oil=, aceite =old=, viejo, antiguo =old age=, vejez =omnibus=, ómnibus =on=, sobre =on deck=, sobre cubierta =onion=, cebolla =only= (adj.), solo =only= (adv.), sólo, solamente =to open=, abrir =opening=, apertura =openly=, á las claras, claro y redondo =to operate=, obrar =operations=, operaciones =operator=, operador =opportunity=, oportunidad =to oppose=, oponerse á =orange=, naranja =orchard=, huerta, huerto =to order=, mandar, pedir =order=, orden, pedido, encargo =ordinary=, ordinario =to organise=, organizar =osnaburgs=, cregüelas =other=, otro =other people's property=, (lo) ajeno =output=, producto =overdue=, atrasado =overhead=, aereo =to overload oneself=, sobrecargarse =to overstep=, exceder =to owe=, deber =owing to=, debido á =own=, propio =ox=, buey =ox casings=, tripas, de buey

=P=

=to pack=, empacar =packages=, bultos =packet=, paquete =page=, página =pain=, dolor =to pain=, doler =painful=, doloroso =paint=, pintura =pair=, par =palace=, palacio =pan (sugar manuf.)=, tacho, paila =paper=, papel =paper fasteners=, sujetapapeles =parcel=, paquete, partida =parents=, padres =parliamentary bill=, proyecto de ley =parliamentary session=, legislatura =part=, la parte =partner=, socio =pasha=, bajá =to pass=, pasar =pattern sets or cards=, muestrarios =to pawn=, empeñar =pause=, pausa =to pay=, pagar =to pay (to be advantageous)=, tener cuenta =payable=, pagadero =peace=, paz =peaches=, melocotones =pen=, pluma =penalty=, multa =pencil=, lápiz =penknife=, cortapluma =pen-nibs=, puntitas =penny=, penique =people=, gente, pueblo =pepper=, pimienta =perennial=, perenne =perfect=, perfecto =to perfect=, perfeccionar =perfectly=, perfectamente =perhaps=, talvez =petition=, petición =phrase=, frase =philosophy=, filosofía =physician=, médico =pickled beef=, carne en salmuera =picks=, picos =pig=, puerco =pig-iron=, lingotes de hierro =pigeon-holes=, casillero =pin=, alfiler =pine=, pino =pink (col.)=, rosa =pipe=, tubo, pipa =pistol=, pistola =to place=, colocar, poner =place=, plaza, sitio =plain=, sencillo, simple =plan (idea)=, plan, proyecto =plan (sketch)=, piano =plane=, cepillo =plank=, tablón =plant=, planta =plate (metal)=, chapa =plausible=, atendible =pleasant, winsome, taking=, simpático =to please=, gustar, placer =pleasure=, placer =pledge=, empeñar =plough=, arado =pneumatic=, neumático =pocket-book=, cartera =point=, punto =to point out=, indicar =to poke (fire)=, remover =poker=, atizador =politely=, cortésmente =pomegranates=, granadas =poor=, pobre =porch=, pórtico =port=, puerto =portfolio=, cartera =portmanteau=, maleta =position=, posición =possess=, poseer =post=, correo, mala =to post=, echar al correo =postage=, franqueo, portes =postman=, cartero =to postpone=, aplazar, diferir =pound=, libra =power of attorney=, poder =powerful=, poderoso =practical=, práctico =practically=, virtualmente =to precede=, preceder =precious=, precioso =preferable=, preferible =preference shares=, acciones preferentes =to prejudice=, comprometer =preliminary=, preliminar =premium=, premio, prima =present=, actual, presente =to present=, presentar, regalar =those present=, los reunidos =preserves=, conservas alimenticias =to press=, apremiar =pretty=, bonito =to prevail=, prevalecer, reinar =previous=, anterior =price=, precio =price list=, boletín, lista =principal=, principal =to print, printed=, imprimir, impreso =cotton prints=, zarazas, estampados =prize=, premio =to produce=, presentar, producir =product=, producto =professor=, profesor =profit and loss=, ganancias y pérdidas =pro forma account=, cuenta simulada =to prohibit=, prohibir =project=, proyecto =promenade=, paseo =promissory note=, pagaré =property=, hacienda, propiedad =to propose=, proponer =proof=, ensayo, prueba =prospects=, perspectivas =to prosper=, medrar =proud=, ufano =to prove=, probar =proverb=, refrán =to provide=, proveer =provided that=, con tal que =prudent=, prudente =to punish, to chastise=, castigar =pupil=, discípulo =to purchase=, comprar =to purify, to exhaust, to investigate=, apurar =to purpose=, proponerse =to put=, poner =to put off=, postergar =to put out=, desconcertar =to put out of gear=, descomponer =to put up=, llevar =to put up with=, soportar

=Q=

=quality=, calidad =quantity=, cantidad =quarter=, cuarto =queen=, reina =queer=, extraño =question=, cuestión, asunto =in question=, consabido =to question=, dudar, preguntar =quick=, pronto =quiet=, tranquilo, sobrio, apagado (colour) =quilting=, acolchado =quire=, mano =quite candidly=, con el corazón en la mano =quota=, cuota =quotation=, cotización, (cita) =to quote=, citar, cotizar

=R=

=to rack one's brains=, devanarse los sesos =rails=, carriles, rieles, railes =railway=, ferrocarril =rain=, lluvia =to rain=, llover =raisins=, pasas =ratepayer=, contribuyente, vecino =rattan furniture=, muebles de bejuco =rays=, rayos =razor=, navaja de afeitar =to read=, leer =reading=, lectura =ready=, pronto, listo =ready money=, dinero efectivo =reason=, razón =reasonable=, razonable, arreglado =rebate=, rebaja, reducción =to make a rebate=, bonificar =to recapitulate=, resumir =receipt=, recibo =to receive=, acoger, recibir =reception=, recibo =to recommend=, recomendar, abonar =record=, colmo =to record=, consignar =to have recourse=, acudir á =to recover=, recobrar =red=, encarnado, rojo =to reduce=, reducir =reduction=, rebaja, reducción =to refer=, referir =references=, informes =to reflect=, reflexionar =reflection=, reflejo =refreshment=, refresco =to refund=, refundir =refusal=, negativa =to refuse=, rehusar, negarse á =regardless of expense=, sin mirar á gastos =region=, comarca =to register (letters, etc.)=, certificar =registered office (of a firm)=, domicilio =regulations=, reglamentos =to reign=, reinar =to reject=, rechazar =to rejoice=, alegrarse =to relate=, contar, dar cuenta =relating to=, acerca de =to remain=, quedar =remainder=, resto, restante =to remark=, observar =remiss=, lento, moroso =to remit, to send=, remitir =remittance=, remesa =remnants=, restos =to remove=, remover, quitar =to render help=, prestar ayuda =to rent=, alquilar =to repeat=, repetir =to repent=, arrepentirse =to reply=, contestar, responder =report=, informe, parte, relación =to report=, dar cuenta =to represent=, representar =representative=, representante =reputation=, fama =request=, petición =to require=, requerir, exigir =requirements=, necesidades =to reserve=, reservar =to reside=, residir, vivir =residence=, domicilio =resources=, recursos =respect=, respeto =to respect=, respetar =respectable=, formal, respetable =with respect to=, con respecto á, respecto de =result=, resultado =to resume=, reanudar =retail=, al por menor =to return=, devolver, regresar =revenue=, ingresos =review=, revista =to revoke=, revocar =reward=, premio =ribbon=, cinta =rice=, arroz =rich, richly=, rico, acaudalado, ricamente =to get rid of=, librarse, deshacerse de =ridiculously low (of prices)=, irrisorio =right=, derecho, justo =to be right=, tener razón =rim=, reborde =riot=, motín =rise=, alza, aumento =risk=, riesgo, peligro =risky=, arriesgado, peligroso =river=, río =to rob=, robar =to rock (a cradle)=, mecer =roll=, rollo =to roll=, arrollar =roller=, cilindro =room=, cuarto, cabida =rope=, soga =rose=, rosa =rotten=, podrido =rough and ready man=, hombre llano =round=, redondo =route=, vía =rubber=, caucho, goma elástica =rubber heels (revolving)=, rodajas de goma =rug=, tapete =to ruin=, echar á perder, arruinar =to rule=, regir, gobernar, dominar, reinar =rule=, regla, régimen =ruler=, regla =rumour=, rumor, especie =to run=, correr =to run down=, atropellar =to run to=, acudir á

=S=

=sad=, triste =safely=, sin novedad, á salvamento =sail=, vela =sailing vessel=, velero=, buque=, de vela =saint, holy=, santo =salary=, sueldo =sale=, venta =salvage=, salvamento =same=, mismo =sardines=, sardinas =sash=, cinto =satins (brocaded)=, satines (brochados) =satisfied=, satisfecho =Saturday=, Sábado =to save=, ahorrar =sawing machine=, sierra mecánica =to say=, decir, manifestar =scalloped=, festoneado =scandalous=, escandaloso =scarcely=, apenas =schooner=, goleta =science=, ciencia =scissors=, tijeras =to scold=, reconvenir =score=, veintena =screw (of a boat)=, hélice (el or la) =screws=, tornillos =not over-scrupulous=, de manga ancha =scuttle=, caja de carbón =seal=, sello =to seal=, sellar =sealing-wax=, lacre =to search=, buscar =season=, estación, temporada =to seat=, asentar =secretary=, secretario =to secure=, asegurar =securities=, valores =to see=, ver =seeing that=, visto que =to seem=, parecer =to select=, elegir, escoger =selection=, surtido =to sell=, vender =selvedge=, orilla =senate=, senado =to send=, enviar, mandar, remitir =to send back=, devolver =to send a remittance=, hacer una remesa =to send for=, mandar buscar =sensible=, discreto, juicioso =sentence=, frase =September=, Setiembre =sergeant=, sargento =series=, la serie =to serve=, servir =service=, servicio, utilidad =session (parliamentary)=, legislatura =to set out=, partir =set of patterns=, muestrario =to settle=, arreglar, definir, liquidar =settlement=, saldo =several=, varios =shade (of colour)=, el matiz =shame=, vergüenza =shape=, forma =share=, acción =shareholder=, accionista =sharp=, agudo =shawl=, chal =shears=, cizallas =sheet (bed)=, sábana =shell-fish=, mariscos =to shelter=, abrigar =shilling=, chelín =ship=, barco, buque, navío =to ship=, embarcar =shipment=, remesa, embarque =shipowners=, armadores =shipper=, exportador =shirt=, camisa =shocking=, escandaloso =shoes=, zapatos =shop=, tienda =shopkeeper=, tendero =short=, corto =short cut=, atajo =shortly=, en breve=, próximamente =shoulder=, espalda =shout=, grito =shovel=, pala =to show=, mostrar, acusar, exhibir, hacer constar, enseñar =shrewd=, fino =to shrink=, encojerse =shrivelled=, encojido =shrunk=, encojido =side=, lado =side arms=, armas blancas =sight=, vista =to sight=, avistar =sign=, señal =to sign=, firmar =signature=, firma =signed guarantee=, indemnidad =to be silent=, callarse =silk=, seda =silk hat=, sombrero de copa =silver=, plata =similar=, semejante =simpleton=, tonto, necio =sincere=, sincero =sincere man=, hombre llano =sincerity=, sinceridad =single, simple, plain=, simple =sister-in-law=, cuñada =skates=, patines =sketch=, croquis =skin=, piel =sky=, cielo =sky-blue=, azul celeste =slack=, flojo =slackness=, flojedad =slate colour=, plomo =sleep=, sueño =to sleep=, dormir =slender=, exiguo =slight=, exiguo, ligero =slip=, boletín, volante =slope=, cuesta =slow=, lento, moroso, tardo =by slow train=, á pequeña velocidad =slowly=, despacio =sly=, socarrón =small=, pequeño, exiguo =smaller=, menor =smallware=, quincalla =smile=, sonrisa =to smoke (of a chimney)=, humear =smooth=, liso =smuggling=, matute =to snow=, nevar =snow=, nieve =so and so=, fulano =so, as … as=, tan … como =society=, sociedad =socks=, calcetines =soda=, soda, sosa =sofa=, el sofá =soft=, blando, suave =to soften=, ablandar =soil=, suelo =soldier=, soldado =sole=, exclusivo =solely=, únicamente =to solicit=, solicitar =solicitor=, abogado (procurador legal) =solidity=, solidez =some=, algún, alguno, algunos, unos =something=, algo =somewhat=, algo =soon=, pronto =sordid=, ruin =sorrow=, dolor =to be sorry=, sentir =so that=, de modo que, para que =so to say=, por decirlo así =sour=, agrio =source=, fuente, manantial =source (to have from a good)=, tener de buena tinta =south=, sur, sud =space=, cabida =spades=, palas =Spanish=, español =Spanish peas=, garbanzos =spare pieces (machinery)=, piezas de repuesto =sparrow=, gorrión =to speak=, hablar =to speak for=, abonar =species=, especie =speculation=, especulación =speed=, prisa =speedy=, pronto =to spend=, gastar =spices=, especias =to spin=, hilar =spinner=, hilador =in spite of=, á pesar de =to spoil=, gastar, echar á perder =spoon=, cuchara =spokes=, rayos =spot=, mancha, punto, sitio =spot cotton=, algodón disponible =spring=, resorte =spring (season)=, primavera =squeamish=, melindroso =to squeeze out=, exprimir, arrancar =squire=, hijodalgo, hidalgo =stain=, mancha =stamp=, timbre =stamp-rack=, porta-estampillas =stamps (postage)=, sellos =standard-bearer=, porta-bandera =standing=, posición =to start from=, arrancar de =statement=, cuenta =statistics=, estadísticas =stay=, estancia =to steal=, robar =steam-engine=, máquina á vapor =steamer=, buque de vapor, vapor =steel=, acero =step=, paso =stick=, garrote =still=, todavía =sting=, herida (fig.) =to stir=, remover =stockings=, medias =stock-jobber=, agiotista =stocks=, existencias =stool=, escaño =to stop payment=, suspender los pagos =to stop short in the middle of one's speech=, cortarse =stores=, depósitos, almacenes =storm=, temporal, tormenta =stove=, estufa, calorífero =stowage=, estiva =straight=, derecho =straightforward=, recto, leal =to strain=, forzar =strange=, extraño =street=, calle =to stretch=, extender =strike=, huelga =striped goods=, listados =stripes=, rayas =stroll=, paseo =strong, fast, firm=, fuerte =to struggle against=, luchar =to study=, estudiar =to stumble=, tropezar =subject=, asunto =to submit=, someter =subsidence=, hundimiento =to succeed=, suceder =to succeed in=, conseguir, obtener =success=, buen éxito =such, such a=, tal =sudden=, repentino =to suffer=, sufrir =suffering=, sufrimiento =to suffice=, bastar =sugar=, azúcar =sugar mill=, trapiche =suitings=, paños =sum=, suma =summer=, verano =to summon=, citar ante los tribunales =sun=, sol =Sunday=, domingo =supper=, cena =to suppose=, suponer =to suppress=, suprimir =supply and demand=, demanda y oferta =to supply oneself=, abastecerse =surety=, fiador =surface=, superficie =to surprise=, maravillar =surprising=, sorprendente =to suspect=, sospechar =to sweep=, barrer =sword=, espada =symptoms=, síntomas

=T=

=table=, mesa =table (of figures)=, cuadro =tact=, tacto =tailor=, sastre =to take=, tomar =to take amiss=, tomar á mal =to take away=, quitar =to take care (of oneself)=, cuidar(se) =to take charge=, encargarse =to take into consideration=, tener en cuenta =to take into tow=, traer á remolque, remolcar =to take much trouble=, afanarse =to take notice=, hacer caso =to take on lease=, alquilar, tomar en arriendo =to take place=, verificarse =to take steps=, dar pasos =to take the start=, tomar la delantera =to take up=, recoger =tallow greaves=, heces de sebo =tariff reform=, reforma arancelaria =task=, tarea =tax=, impuesto =tea=, té =to teach=, enseñar =teaching=, enseñanza =teeth=, dientes =to telephone=, telefonear =to tell=, decir =temper=, genio =temporarily=, temporalmente =tenant=, inquilino =tender=, tierno =term=, plazo =terms=, condiciones =textile=, textil =textiles=, tejidos =to thank=, agradecer =thanks to … =, merced á … =that=, ese,-a,-o, aquel-lla-llo, que =their=, su =then=, entonces, luego, pues =there=, allá, allí, ahí =therefore=, portanto =there is=, =there are=, hay =there to be=, haber =thick=, grueso, espeso =thief=, ladrón =thimble=, dedal =thing=, cosa =to think=, creer, pensar =third= (frac.), tercio =thirst=, sed =this=, este,-a,-o =thousand=, mil =threshing machines=, trilladores =to throw=, echar =to thunder=, tronar =Thursday=, jueves =ticket, etiqueta=, rótulo =ticking=, terliz =timber=, madera =time=, tiempo, época =at the same time=, al mismo tiempo, á la par que =tin=, estaño =to tire=, cansar =to-day=, hoy =ton=, tonelada =tongs=, tenazas =tongue=, lengua =too (also)=, también =too, too much=, demasiado =tools=, herramientas =top=, cima =touch=, tacto =to tow=, traer á remolque, remolcar =towards=, para con, hacia =to what extent?=, ¿hasta qué punto? =town=, ciudad, población, villa, pueblo =trade=, comercio =trade union=, asociación de obreros =train=, tren =to transport=, tra(n)sportar =to travel=, viajar =traveller= (commercial), viajante =traveller= (tourist, etc.), viajero =treasure=, tesoro =to treat=, =to try=, =to endeavour=, tratar =tree=, árbol =trial=, prueba, ensayo =trick=, engañifa =trifles=, pequeñeces =to trifle with=, burlarse =trifling amount=, una friolera =trimmings=, guarniciones, adornos =trouserings=, telas para pantalones =trousers=, pantalones =trunk=, baúl =truss=, fardito =trust=, confianza =trustworthy=, fidedigno =to trust=, confiar =trustee=, síndico =truth=, verdad =to try=, probar, tratar =Tuesday=, martes =Turkey red handkerchiefs=, pañuelos de Andrinópolis =turn for the worse=, empeoramiento =to turn=, volver =turnover=, giro =twill=, asargado, cruzado, aterlizado, diagonal =twine=, bramante =to twist=, torcer =tyres=, llantas

=U=

=umpire=, árbitro =uncertainty=, incertidumbre =uncle=, tío =under=, debajo de =to undersell=, malbaratar =to understand=, comprender, entender =to undertake=, comprometerse, emprender =undertaking=, empresa =uneasiness=, malcontento =unfavorable=, desfavorable =to unfold=, desplegar =unforeseen=, imprevisto =unhappy, unfortunate=, desdichado, infeliz =unless=, á menos que =unloading=, descarga =unnavigable=, innavegable =unprecedented=, sin precedente =unripe=, inmaturo, verde =unsuitability=, inconveniencia =until=, hasta que =unwillingly=, de mala gana =upon=, sobre =upright=, íntegro, cabal =to upset=, desconcertar =to urge=, apremiar, apresurar =to use for the first time=, estrenar =useful=, útil =usefulness=, utilidad =utility=, utilidad

=V=

=vagabonds, (company of)=, hampa =value=, valor =valve=, válvula =variety=, variedad =varnish=, el barniz =velvet=, terciopelo =velveteen=, pana =venture=, ensayo =very=, muy =vest=, chaleco =via=, vía =to vie with=, trabajar, ir, á porfía, habérselas con =view=, vista =villa=, quinta =village=, pueblo =vineyards=, viñas =violet=, violeta =virtue=, virtud =to visit=, visitar =vivid=, vivo =vividly=, vivamente =viz=., es decir, á saber =vocabulary=, vocabulario

=W=

=wages=, sueldo =waistcoat=, chaleco =to wait for=, esperar =to wait upon=, visitar =to wake up=, despertar =walk=, paseo =to walk=, andar =to want=, necesitar, querer =to be wanted=, hacer falta =to be wanting=, faltar =want of foresight=, imprevidencia =war=, guerra =warehouse=, almacén =warehouseman=, almacenero, dependiente de almacén =to warn=, advertir =to take warning=, escarmentar =warrant=, cédula =to warrant=, justificar =to waste=, desperdiciar, malgastar =waste-paper basket=, cestilla =watch=, reloj =to watch over=, vigilar =water=, agua =way=, manera, modo, vía =wealth=, riqueza =wealthy=, acaudalado =to wear=, gastar, llevar =to wear for the first time=, estrenar =wearing apparel=, vestidos, ropa, hato =to weave=, tejer =weaver=, tejedor =webbing=, tejido elástico =Wednesday=, miércoles =week=, semana =weight=, peso =to welcome=, agasajar =well=, bien, pues =west=, oeste =to wet=, bañar =whale=, ballena =what=, qué (inter.), lo que =wheat=, trigo =when=, cuando =whenever=, cuandoquiera =where=, donde =wherever=, dondequiera =whether=, si, sea que =which=, que, el cual =whichever=, cualquiera =while=, mientras =whim=, antojo =Whitsuntide=, Pentecostés =white=, blanco =who=, que, quien, el cual =whoever=, quienquiera, cualquiera =wholesale=, al por mayor =whom=, quien =whose=, cuyo =wicked=, malo =widower=, víudo =width=, anchura, ancho =wife=, mujer, esposa =will=, voluntad =to win=, vencer =to win over=, granjearse =wind=, viento =window=, ventana =wine=, vino =wine (adj.)=, vinícolo =winsome=, simpático =winter=, invierno =wireless=, radiograma =wise=, juicioso, sabio =to wish=, desear =to wish to have=, querer =wishful=, deseoso =with great effort=, á duras penas =within=, dentro de =without=, sin, sin que =woman=, mujer =to wonder=, maravillarse =to be wont=, soler =wood=, madera =wool=, lana =word=, palabra, vocablo =to work=, trabajar, obrar =to work (mines)=, explotar =workman=, obrero, operario =workshop=, taller =world=, mundo =world (adj.)=, mundial =worth=, valor =to be worth=, poseer, valer =to be worth while=, valer la pena =wound=, herida =to wound=, herir =wrap=, bata =wreck=, naufragar =to wreck=, echar á perder =to wrench=, arrancar =to write=, escribir =to write to each other=, escribirse =writer=, escritor =writing (n.)=, letra, escríto =writing desk=, escritorio =writing pad=, carpeta =written agreement=, contrato =to wrangle with someone=, habérselas con uno =on the wrong side=, al revés

=Y=

=yard=, yarda =yard (Spanish)=, vara =yarn=, hilado =year=, año =yellow=, amarillo =yes=, sí =yesterday=, ayer =yet=, todavía, aun =to yield, to submit=, ceder, darse á partido =young=, joven =young age=, juventud =young man, woman=, joven =youth=, juventud

=Z=

APPENDIX I

PRINCIPAL EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE ON SPANISH GENDER BY TERMINATION

El dilema (the dilemma)
El diploma (the diploma)
El epigrama (the epigram)
El problema (the problem)
El síntoma (the symptom)
El telegrama (the telegram)

But La amalgama (the amalgamation)
La diadema (the diadem)
La estratagema (the stratagem)
La proclama (the proclamation)

El cortaplumas (the penknife)
El guardacosta (the coasting-vessel)
El paraguas (the umbrella)
El tirabala (the popgun)

El Etna (Etna (volcano))
El mapa (the map)
El sofá (the sofa)
El Volga [210] (the Volga)
And all words ending in accented a.

El adalid (the warrior or chieftain)
El ardid (the trick)
El ataúd (coffin)
El césped (the turf, lawn)
El sud (the south)

El embrión (the embryo)
El gorrión (the sparrow)
El morrión (parts of an armour)
El sarampión (measles)

La diócesi (the diocese)
La grey (the flock)
La ley (the law)
La metrópoli (the metropolis)

La cal (lime)
La capital (capital—town)
La cárcel (prison)
La col (cabbage)
La miel (honey)
La piel (skin)
La sal (salt)
La señal (signal)
La vocal (vowel)

La cargazón (the load)
La crin (the horsehair)
La desazón (the ailment)
La imagen (the image)
La razón (the reason)
La sinrazón (the injustice)
La sartén (the frying-pan)
La sien (the temple)

Only word, excepting "nao" (ship), now obsolete, and "seo" (cathedral), little used.

La bilis (the bile)
La crisis (the crisis)
La elipsis (ellipsis)
La lis (fleur-de-lis)
La mies (the crop)
La perífrasis (the periphrase)
La tos (the cough)

La codorniz (the partridge)
La cerviz (the cervix)
La cruz (the cross)
La coz (the back-kick)
La luz (the light)
La nariz (the nose)
La nuez (the nut)
La pez (the pitch)
La voz (the voice)
La raíz (the root)
La tez (the complexion)
La vez (the time, once, etc., etc.)

15. Feminine nouns ending in e. (This is the most numerous list of exceptions)—

Las aves (the birds)
La barbarie (the barbarity)
La base (the basis)
La calle (the street)
La carne (the flesh)
La fiebre (the fever)
La fuente (the fountain)
El hambre (f.), (the hunger)
La mente (the mind)
La noche (the night)
La parte (the part)
La quiete (the quiet)
La sangre (the blood)
La serpiente (the serpent)
La torre (the tower)

Besides the masculine and feminine genders, some nouns are called: de género común, epiceno, and ambiguo. The noun is called "de género común" (common gender) when with the same termination it may indicate both a male and female being by using a different article—

Un—una albacea (an executor, executrix)
Un—una artista (an artist, artiste)
Un—una Belga[211] (a Belgian)
Un—una idiota (an idiot)
Un—una indígena (a native)
Un—una mártir (a martyr)
Un—una reo (a culprit)
Un—una culpable (a culprit)
Un—una gimnasta (a gymnast)
Un—una homicida (a murderer, a murderess)
Un—una suicida (one who commits suicide)
Un—una testigo (a witness)

The noun is called Epicene when, with the same termination and the same article, it indicates both male and female—

El águila (the eagle—male and female)
El buitre (the vulture—male and female)
El avestruz (the ostrich—male and female)
La rata (the rat—male and female)

The term "ambiguo" is applied to nouns which are masculine or feminine, with different meaning, or the gender of which is not well defined—

            Análasis (analysis), doubtful gender
El aroma (the aroma) La aroma (the acacia flower)
La or el arte (the art) Los or Las artes
Las bellas artes (the arts, generally fem.)
(the fine arts, always fem.)
La barba (the beard) El barba (a character in Spanish
                                      plays)
El cabecilla (chieftain or ringleader La cabecilla (the little head)
  of rebels)
El calavera (the madcap) La calavera (the skull)
El canal (the canal) La canal (the gutter)
El capital (money) La capital (the town)
El cólera (cholera) La cólera (wrath)
El cometa (comet) La cometa (the kite, toy)
El corte (the cut) La corte (the court)
El cura (the priest) La cura (the cure)
El doblez (the fold) La doblez (duplicity)
El or la dote (dowry), generally Las dotes (good parts, gifts),
  fem. in the pl. always fem.
El fantasma (the phantom) La fantasma (the bogie-man)
El frente (the front) La frente (the forehead)
El haz (the sheaf) La haz (face, surface)
Lente (lenses), doubtful gender
La orden (command, order for El orden (order); as, buen orden
  goods, etc.) (good order)
Las sagradas órdenes (holy orders) Las varias órdenes (various religious
                                         orders)
El parte (report) La parte (part)
El pendiente (ear-ring) La pendiente (slope)
El pez (fish) La pez (pitch)
El tema (exercise, theme) La tema (fear, obstinacy)
Tilde (~), doubtful gender

"Mar" (sea) is either Masc. or fem., but names of particular seas are all masculine—

The following masculine nouns have their equivalent feminine formed by inflexion.

N.B.—We omit those in which the inflexion consists of the change of the last vowel to a, or the addition of a, as—

El autor, la autora (the author, authoress)
El holgazán, la holgazana (the lazy man, lazy woman)
El primo, la prima (the cousin, masc. and fem.)
El vecino, la vecina (the neighbour, masc. and fem.)

El abad (abbot) La abadesa (abbess)
El actor (actor) La actriz (actress)
El barón (baron) La baronesa (baroness)
El canónigo (canon) La canonesa (canoness)
El cantor (singer) La cantatriz (singer)
El conde (count) La condesa (countess)
El diacono (deacon) La diaconisa (deaconess)
El duque (duke) La duquesa (duchess)
El elector (elector) La electriz (electress)
El emperador (emperor) La emperatriz (empress)
El filósofo (philosopher) La filosofesa (philosopher)
El gallo (cock) La gallina (hen)
El héroe (hero) La heroína (heroine)
El poeta (poet) La poetisa (poetess)
El principe (prince) La princesa (princess)
El profeta (prophet) La profetisa (prophetess)
El rey (king) La reina (queen)
El sacerdote (priest) La sacerdotisa (priestess)
El vizconde (viscount) La vizcondesa (viscountess)
El Zar (czar) La Zarina (czarina)

El asistente (assistant) La asistenta (assistant)
El infante (child under 7; La infanta (child; Span. Royal
also Span., Royal Prince) Princess)
El pariente (relative) La parienta (relative)
El presidente (president) La presidenta (president)
El sirviente (manservant) La sirvienta (maidservant)

N.B.—

Un abogado makes in the fem. Una muger abogado
Un médico " " " " " médico
Un comadrón " " " " comadre (midwife)

The following nouns of persons and animals have two different forms to represent the two sexes—

El buey (ox) La vaca (cow)
El caballo (stallion) La yegua (mare)
El carnero (ram) La oveja (ewe)
El fraile (friar) La soror (sister)
El hombre (man) La muger (woman)
El macho cabrío or cabrón (he-goat) La cabra (she-goat)
El marido (husband) La muger (the wife)
El padre (father) La madre (mother)
El padrastro (step-father) La madrastra (step-mother)
El padrino (god-father) La madrina (god-mother)
El toro (bull) La vaca (cow)
El yerno (son-in-law) La nuera (daughter-in-law)

El ánade, la ánade (the duck)
El liebre, la liebre (the hare)
El tigre, la tigre (the tiger, tigress)

Un ganso (a gander) Una gansa (a goose)
Un león (the lion) Una leona (a lioness)
Un mulo (a mule) Una mula (a she-mule)
Un pollino (an ass) Una pollina (a she-ass)

APPENDIX II

SPANISH COMMON NOUNS, IN ORDINARY USE, WHICH ARE USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL

Afueras (environs)
Aguaderas (frames to carry water)
Albricias (reward for good news—also used as interjection: joy! joy!!)
Andas (stretcher, also frame for carrying an image)
Calendas (calends)
Calzoncillos (drawers)
Carnestolendas (carnival)
Celos (jealously—"Celo"—zeal)
Hacer cosquillas (to tickle)
Despabilladoras (snuffers)
Enaguas (skirt)
Fauces (gullet)
Modales (manners)
Mientes—also Mente (the mind)
Parrillas (gridiron)
Puches (sort of fritters)
Tenazas (tongs, pincers)
Tijeras (scissors)
Tinieblas (utter darkness)
Víveres (victuals)
Zaragüelles (kind of breeches)

Á ciegas (blindly)
Á ojos cegarritas (blindly)
Á horcajadas (astride)
Á hurtadillas (on the sly)
Á sabiendas (knowingly)
De puntillas (on tiptoe)
Á tientas (groping)
De bóbilis bóbilis (without toil)
De bruces (on all fours)
En ayunas (fasting)
En volandas (in the air, off one's feet)

The following plurals, besides the ordinary, have also a different meaning from the singular—

El alfiler (pin) Los alfileres (pins, pin-money)
El día (day) Los días (days, birthday)
La esposa (wife) Las esposas (wives, handcuffs)
El grillo (the cricket) Los grilles (crickets, shackles)
La letra (letter) Las letras (letters—literary knowledge)
El padre (father) Los padres[212] (fathers, parents)

[Footnote 212: In the same manner all masculine plurals include also the plurals of both genders, as: Hermanos (brothers, also brothers and sisters).]

A B
Verbs Adjectives
Prepositions Nouns
Adverbs Participles
Conjunctions Pronouns
Prefixes

GENERAL RULE—

Un bullebulle (busybody), Unos bullebulles
Un quehacer (occupation), Unos quehaceres
Pasapasa (sleight of hand), Pasapasas (sleight of hand tricks)

Alzacuello (minister's collar) Alzacuellos
Alzapaño (curtain hook), Alzapañios
Andaniño (child's cart), Andaniñios
Antepasado (ancestor), Antepasados
Ave María (a prayer), Ave Marías
Cualquiera (whatever), Cualesquiera
Entremetido (intruder, busybody), Entremetidos
Gentilhombre (man of gentle birth), Gentileshombres
Guardafuego (fire-guard), Guardafuegos
Hijodalgo (squire), Hijosdalgo
Pasamano (handrail, lace-edgings), Pasamanos
Pasatiempo (pastime), Pasatiempos
Picaparte (latch or latchkey), Picapartes
Pisaverde (beau), Pisaverdes
Portaestandarte (standard bearer), Portaestandartes
Portafusil (musket-sling), Portafusiles
Puercoespín (porcupine), Puercosespines
Quienquiera (whoever), Quienesquiera
Quitasol (parasol), Quitasoles
Ricahembra (woman of gentle birth), Ricashembras
Sobrecama (counterpane), Sobrecamas
Sobredicho (aforesaid), Sobredichos
Tapaboca (slap on the mouth), Tapabocas
Tirabotón (button-hook), Tirabotones

N.B.—When the second of the two words commences with r this letter should be doubled—

In compound nouns (very rare) formed of two nouns of which the first stands as an adjective to the second, the first noun remains invariable, the second only taking the mark of the plural—

In the following compound nouns formed of an adjective and a noun, the adjective remains invariable in the plural, as—

Bajamar (low tide), Bajamares
Bajorelieve (bas-relief), Bajorelieves
Belladona (belladonna), Belladonas
Blancomanjar (blanc-mange), Blancomanjares
Plenamar (full tide), Plenamares
Salvoconducto (safe conduct), Salvoconductos
Salvaguardia (safeguard), Salvaguardias
Santa Bárbara (powder magazine), Santa Bárbaras

In compound nouns formed of two words, the first of which has suffered the loss or change of a letter, this first component remains invariable—

Artimaña (trick), Artimañas
Barbicano (white-bearded man), Barbicanos
Barbilindo (beardless man), Barbilindos
Boquirrubio (rosy-lipped), Boquirrubios
Cojitranco (lame fellow—disparagingly), Cojitrancos
Cuellierguido (stiff-necked man), Cuellierguidos
Gallipavo (turkey), Gallipavos
Manirroto (spendthrift), Manirrotos
Marisabidilla (blue stocking), Marisabidillas
Ojinegro (black-eyed), Ojinegros
Ojizarco (blue-eyed), Ojizarcos
Patizambo (bandy-legged), Patizambos
Pechicolorado (robin redbreast), Pechicolorados
Pleamar (high tide), Pleamares
Tragicomedia (tragi-comedy), Tragicomedias
Viandante (wayfarer), Viandantes

Bancarrota (bankruptcy), Bancarrotas
Coliflor (cauliflower), Coliflores
Dares y tomares (wrangling), used only in pl.
Dimes y diretes (ifs, ands and buts), used only in pl.
Don Diego de noche (four o'clocks—flower), Don Diegos de noche
Maritornes (ill-shaped woman), Maritornes
Parabién (compliment), Parabienes
Vaivén (vibration), Vaivenes

The following are examples of the large class of nouns (compound) formed with a verb or adverb and a plural noun and which are used for both numbers—

Azotacalles (idler)
Buscavidas (pryer)
Cortaplumas (penknife)
Chupaflores (humming-bird)
Destripaterrones (navvy)
Lavamanos (wash-hand stand)
Limpiabotas (boot-black)
Matamoros (boaster)
Mondadientes (toothpick)
Papahueros (ninny)
Papamoscas (ninny)
Papanatas (ninny)
Paracaídas (parachute)
Paraguas (umbrella)
Pelagatos (ragamuffin)
Pintamonas (slap-dasher or bad partner)
Sacacorchos (corkscrew)
Salvavidas (life-boats)
Sepancuantos (slap or blow)

Correveidile (tale-bearer)
Hazmereir (laughing-stock)
Metomentodo (busybody)
Paternoster (Lord's Prayer)
Quitaipón (ornament for headstall of draught beasts)
Sábelotodo (presumptious man)
Sinvergüenza (barefaced man)

APPENDIX III

PRINCIPAL NAMES OF COUNTRIES, TOWNS, ETC., (WITH CORRESPONDING SPANISH ADJECTIVES)

Abisinia (abisinio), Abyssinia
Adrianópolis, Adrianopole
África (africano), Africa
Álava (alaveño, alavés), Alava
Albania (albanés), Albania
Alcalá de Henares (complutense), Alcalá
Alemania (alemán), Germany
Alicante (alicantino), Alicante
Alsacia (alsaciano), Alsatia
Amberes, Antwerp
América (americano), America
Andalucía (andaluz), Andalusia
Antillas (antillano), West Indies
Arabia (árabe, arábigo), Arabia
Aragón (aragonés), Arragon
Argel (argelino), Algiers
Argentina (argentine), Argentine
Armenia (armenio), Armenia
Asia (asiático), Asia
Atenas (ateniense), Athens
Austria (austríaco), Austria
Ávila (abulense), Avila
Barcelona (barcelonés), Barcelona
Basilea, Basle
Baviera (bávaro), Bavaria
Belén, Bethlehem
Bélgica (belga, bélgico), Belgium
Bilbao (bilbaíno), Bilbao
Bohemia (bohemo), Bohemia
Bolivia (boliviano), Bolivia
Bolonia (boloñés), Bologna
Brasil (brasileño), Brazil
Bretaña (bretón), Brittany
Brujas, Bruges
Bruselas, Brussels
Buenos Aires (bonaerense, porteño), Buenos Aires
Bulgaria (búlgaro), Bulgaria
Burdeos, Bordeaux
Burgos (burgalés), Burgos
Cádiz (gaditano), Cadiz
Calabria (calabrés), Calabria
Caldea (caldeo), Chaldaea
Canadá (canadiense), Canada
Canarias (canario), Canary Islands
Caracas (caraqueño), Caracas
Cartago (cartaginés), Carthage
Castilla (castellano), Castille
Cataluña (catalán), Catalonia
Cerdeña (sardo), Sardinia
Chile (chileno), Chili
China (chino), China
Colombia (colombiano), Colombia
Copenhague, Copenhagen
Córdoba (cordobés), Cordova
Córcega (corso), Corsica
Corfú (corfiota), Corfu
Dardanelos, Dardenelles
Dinamarca (danés, dinamarqués), Denmark
Dresde, Dresden
Ecuador (ecuatoriano), Equador
Egipto (egipcio), Egypt
Escocia (escocés), Scotland
Esmirna, Smyrna
España (español), Spanish
Estocolmo, Stockholm
Etiopia (etíope), Ethiopia
Europa (europeo), European
Extremadura (extremeño) Extremadura
Fenicia (fenicio), Phoenician
Filipinas (filipino), Philippine Islands
Flandes (flamenco), Flanders
Florencia (florentino), Florentine
Francia (francés), France
Gales (galés), Wales
Galicia (gallego), Galicia (Spain)
Gascuña (gascón), Gascony
Génova (genovés), Genoa
Gibraltar (gibraltareño), Gibraltar
Ginebra (ginebrino), Geneva
Gran Bretaña (británico), Great Britain
Granada (granadino), Granada
Grecia (griego), Greece
Guadalajara (guadalajareño), Guadalajara
Guatemala (guatemalteco), Guatemala
Guipúzcoa (guipuzcoano), Guipuzcoa
Habana (habanero, habano), Havannah
Holanda (holandés), Holland
Honduras (hondureño), Honduras
Hungría (húngaro), Hungary
India (indios), India
Inglaterra (inglés), England
Irlanda (irlandés), Ireland
Italia (italiano), Italy
Japón (japonés), Japan
La Mancha (manchego), La Mancha
León (leonés), Leon (Spain)
Lieja, Liège
Lima (limeño), Lima
Liorna (liornés), Leghorn
Lisboa (lisbonense), Lisbon
Lombardia (lombardo), Lombardy
Londres (londinense), London
Macedonia (macedonio), Macedonia
Madrid (madrileño), Madrid
Málaga (malagueño), Malaga
Malta (maltés), Malta
Mallorca (mallorquín), Majorca
Maracaibo (maracaibero), Maracaibo
Marruecos (marroquí), Morocco
Marsella (marsellés), Marseilles
Menorca (menorquín), Minorca
Méjico (mejicano), Mexico
Murcia (murciano), Murcia
Nápoles (napolitano), Naples
Navarra (navarro), Navarre
Normandia (normando), Normandy
Noruega (noruego), Norway
Pamplona (pamplonés), Pamplona
Paraguay (paraguayano), Paraguay
Paris (parisiense), Paris
Persia (persa or persiano), Persia
Perú (peruano), Peru
Piamonte (piamontés), Piedmont
Polonia (polaco), Poland
Portugal (portugués), Portugal
Puerto Rico (portorriqueño), Porto Rico
Roma (romano), Rome
Rumania (rumano), Roumania
Rusia (ruso), Russia
Saboya (saboyardo), Savoy
Sajonia (sajón), Saxony
Salamanca (salmantino, salamanques), Salamanca
Salvador (salvadoreño), Salvador
San Sebastian (donostiarra), San Sebastian
Serbia (serbio), Serbia
Sevilla (sevillano), Seville
Sicilia (siciliano), Sicily
Suecia (sueco), Sweden
Suiza (suizo), Switzerland
Tetuán (tetuaní), Tetuan
Troya (troyano), Troy
Túnez (tunecino), Tunis
Turquía (turco), Turkey
Uruguay (uruguayano), Uruguay
Valencia (valenciano), Valencia
Valladolid (valisoletano), Valladolid
Varsovia (varsoviano), Warsaw
Vascongadas, Provincias (vascongado, vascuence), Basque Provinces
Venecia (veneciano), Venice
Venezuela (venezolano), Venezuela
Vera Cruz (veracruzano), Vera Cruz
Viena (vienés), Vienna
Vigo (vigués), Vigo
Vitoria (vitoriano), Vitoria
Yucatán (yucateco), Yucatan
Zaragoza (zaragozano), Zaragoza

APPENDIX IV

AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES[213]

[Footnote 213: The terminations ón and ito or ico may be taken by practically all nouns (avoiding cacophony, as: Pantalonón, habitacionóna, etc.); the others may not and consequently should not be used by students, until learnt by practice.]

Bestiecita (little beast)
Bestiezuela (little beast) (disparaging)
Chiquito (little child)
Chiquitín (little child)
Florecita (little flower)
Florecilla (little flower) (insignificant)
Hombrón (big, tall man)
Hombrote (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombracho (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombrachón (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombrazo (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombronazo (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Juanito (little John)
Labradorcito (little labourer)
Lagarto—Lagartija (little lizard)
Lío—Liecito (little bundle)
Librón (large, big book)
Librazo (large, big book) (disparaging)
Libracho (large, big book) (disparaging)
Librote (large, big book) (disparaging)
Llavín (little key, latchkey)
Manuel—Manolo (little Manuel)
Manuel—Manolito (little Manuel)
Madrecita (little mother)
Madrecica (little mother)
Pajarraco (big bird) (disparaging)
Papelón (large paper)
Plazoleta (little square)
Reinecita (little queen)
Tamborcito[214] (little drum)
Tamborcico (little drum)

[Footnote 214: Ito is more Castillian. Ico is more Aragonese. They are both used.]

We repeat that the peculiarity of Augmentative and Diminutive terminations (with the exception of the Augment. on, which denotes only increase) is that besides the idea of increase or diminution a further disparaging or endearing meaning is implied although not distinctly defined.

These terminations in many cases substitute the use of adjectives to great advantage, and are largely used by Spaniards, especially the diminutives which, for this reason, should be carefully noticed.

Mi padre me regaló este gracioso librito: My father made me a present of this pretty little book.

Although ón and ote are generally augmentative terminations, in the following words and a few more, they are used as diminutives—

Calle (street) Callejón (narrow street, alley)
Carro (cart) Carretón (little cart)
Isla (island) Islote (little barren island)
Torre (tower) Torrejón (turret)

Besides Augmentative and Diminutive terminations, there are some terminations which, without indicating increase or decrease, are used to indicate disparagement pure and simple—

Calducho (bad broth)
Gentualla (mob)
Gentuza (insignificant people)
Libraco (nasty book)
Madrastra (step-mother)
Medicastro (bad doctor)
Mujeruca (old wife, gossip)
Poetastro (bad poet)

The Augmentative and Diminutive terminations (especially the latter) are found added to adjectives and, although more rarely, to other parts of speech also. They must be learnt by practice, however, as they cannot be used indiscriminately.

EXAMPLES—

El picarillo (picaruelo) quiere el otro cuello que es más blanquito: The little rogue wants the other collar which is nice and clean (lit., whiter).

Como me gusta la blanca nieve acabadita de caer: How pretty is the snow just newly fallen.

Mira á aquella chica tan bien vestidita de azul: Look at that little girl so prettily dressed in blue

Poquito á poco hila la vieja el copo (proverb): Little by little the old woman spins her distaff (Slow and sure wins the race)

Amarillento (yellowish)
Azulado (bluish)
Azulino (bluish)
Blanquecino (whitish)
Morenito (brownish)
Que tira á moreno (brownish)
Negruzco (blackish)
Pardusco (greyish)
Que tira á pardo ó gris (greyish)
Rojizo (reddish)
Verdoso (greenish)
Verdusco (greenish)

Anaranjado (orange-coloured)
Avellanado (nut-coloured, tawny)
Celeste (sky-blue)
Dorado (golden)
Pajizo (straw-coloured)
Perlino (pearl-coloured)
Plateado (silvery)
Rosado (rose-coloured, pink, rosy)
Terreo (ashen-pale)
Trigueño (brown, wheat-coloured)

APPENDIX V

VERBS WHICH DIFFER IN REGIMEN FROM THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS. EXTRACTED FROM THE GENERAL LIST OF THE GRAMMAR OF THE SPANISH ACADEMY[215]

[Footnote 215: This list is comprehensive, but not exhaustive; some of these verbs, besides the preposition given, may be followed by others. Practice in reading is the best master.]

Abordar (una nave) á (or con) otra: To board (a ship).
Abrasarse en deseos: To be burning with desire.
Abundar de (or en) riquezas: To abound with riches.
Abusar de la amistad: To abuse friendship.
Acertar con la casa: To find the right house.
Adelantarse á otros: To take the start on others.
Admirarse de un suceso: To wonder at an event.
Aficionarse á alguna cosa: To grow fond of anything.
Alejarse de su tierra: To depart from one's country.
Alimentarse con (or de) yerbas: To feed on vegetables.
Anticiparse á otro: To forestall another.
Apiadarse con los pobres: To have pity on the poor.
Aportar á Barcelona: To put into Barcelona.
Apreciar en mucho: To appreciate highly.
Arder de cólera: To burn with anger.
Armarse de paciencia: To arm oneself with patience.
Arrimarse á la pared: To lean against the wall.
Arrostrar (con (or por)) los peligros: To face the dangers.
Atender (á) los negocios: To attend to business.
Aventajarse á otros: To excel others.

Bañar con (de or en) lágrimas: To bathe with tears.
Barbear con la pared: To run against the wall.
Brindar á la salud de alguno: To drink the health of someone.
Brindar con regalos: To give presents.
Burlarse de algo: To laugh at something.

Caber de pies: There to be standing room.
Calificar de docto: To call one learned.
Cambiar una cosa con (or por) otra: To exchange one thing for another.
Campar por su respeto: To keep to oneself.
Carecer de medios: To lack means.
Casar or casarse con alguno: To marry someone.
Cesar de correr: To cease running.
Cifrar su dicha en la virtud: To make one's happiness consist in virtue.
Clavar á (or en) la pared: To nail on the wall.
Cojear del pie derecho: To limp with the right foot.
Colgar de un clavo: To hang on a nail.
Colmar de mercedes: To load with benefits.
Comerciar con su crédito: To trade on one's credit.
Comprar de (or á) una persona: To buy from someone.
Comprar al fiado: To buy on credit.
Comprometerse á pagar: To undertake to pay.
Confiar en (or de) alguno: To trust anybody.
Conservarse con (or en) salud: To keep in good health.
Contar con su auxilio: To count on his help.
Contravenir á la ley: To contravene the law.
Convenir al enfermo: To suit the patient.
Correr con los gastos: To undertake the expense.
Cortar por lo sano: To cut short (an argument, etc.).
Cumplir á uno hacer una cosa: To be one's duty to do something.
Chancearse con alguno: To joke with someone.

Dañarse del pecho: To injure one's chest.
Dar con la carga en el suelo: To throw down the load.
Dar con quien lo entiende: To come across someone who understands it.
Dar contra un poste: To knock against a post.
Dar de barato: To grant for argument's sake.
Darse por vencido: To give it up.
Decir bien una cosa con otra: To match well together.
Decir para sí: To say to oneself.
Dejar de escribir: To cease writing, to fail to write.
Demandar ante el juez (or en juicio): To summon.
Depender de alguno: To be dependent on someone.
Desayunarse con chocolate: To breakfast on chocolate.
Desconfiar de alguno: To mistrust one.
Descuidarse de (or en) su obligación: To neglect one's duty.
Desfallecer de ánimo: To lose courage.
Deshacerse de los géneros: To get rid of the goods.
Detestar de la mentira: To hate lying.
Disfrutar de buena renta: To enjoy a good income.
Doblar por un difunto: To sound the death knell.
Dudar de alguna cosa: To doubt something.

Echar en tierra: To throw on the ground.
Echar de casa: To turn out of the house.
Echar de ver una cosa: To perceive (realise) a thing.
Echarla de rico: To assume airs of a rich man.
Embelesarse con alguna cosa: To go into raptures over anything.
Embutir de algodón: To stuff with cotton.
Enajenarse de alguna cosa: To do away with anything.
Encargarse de algún negocio: To undertake a business.
Encontrarse con un amigo: To meet a friend.
Encuadernar á la rústica, en pasta: To bind in paper covers, in boards.
Escarmentar con la desgracia: To take warning from misfortune.
Esmerarse en alguna cosa: To take pains with anything.

Fiarse á (de, en) alguno: To trust in anyone.
Firmar de propria mano: To sign with one's own hand.
Forrar de (con, en) pieles: To line with skins.
Fumar en pipa: To smoke the pipe.

Girar á cargo de alguno: To draw on someone.
Girar sobre París: To draw on Paris.
Guardarse de alguno: To guard against anybody.
Gustar de bromas: To be fond of joking.

Habérselas con otros: To wrangle, to have a bone to pick, to vie with
Hacer de galán en un drama: To take the part of principal actor in a drama.
Herir de muerte: To wound fatally.
Hincarse de rodillas: To fall on one's knees.
Hocicar con (contra, en) alguna cosa: To run against anything.

Igualar (igualarse) á (or con) otro: To equal another, to match.
Indemnizar del perjuicio: To indemnify for the loss.
Influir con el jefe: To influence the chief.
Insistir en (sobre) una cosa: To insist on something.
Inspirar una idea á alguno: To inspire anybody with an idea.
Inundar de (or en) agua: To flood with water.

Librar á cargo de un banquero: To draw on a banker.
Librar una letra sobre Paris: To draw a bill on Paris.
Lindar (una tierra) con otra: To border on another.
Llegar á la posada: To reach the inn.
Llevarse bien con el vecino: To get on well with the neighbour.
Llover á cantaros: To rain in bucketfuls.

Maravillarse con (or de) una noticia: To be surprised at some news.
Marcar á fuego: To brand.
Mejorar de condición: To improve in condition.
Mejorar en tercio y quinto: To improve greatly.

Parecerse á otro: To be similar to another.
Pensar en (sobre) alguna cosa: To think of something.
Pensar para sí: To think to oneself.
Perecerse de risa: To die with laughter.
Pintar de azul: To paint blue.
Poblar de árboles: To plant with trees.
Ponerse á escribir: To commence writing.
Prescindir de una cosa: To dispense with anything.
Presumir de rico: To feign riches.
Proveer á la necesidad pública: To provide the needs of the public.

Quedar á deber: To remain owing.
Quedarse con lo ajeno: To keep other people's property.

Rebosar de alegría: To teem with joy.
Recibir á cuenta: To receive on account.
Recibir de criado: To admit as a servant.
Recibir por esposa: To receive as a wife.
Reclamar á fulano: To claim from so and so.
Responder á la pregunta: To answer the question.
Reventar de risa: To burst with laughter.
Rodear de una pared: To surround with a wall.

Saber á vino: To taste of wine.
Salirse con la suya: To have one's own way.
Salvarse á nado: To save oneself by swimming.
Sentarse á la mesa: To sit down at table.
Soñar con ladrones: To dream of thieves.
Suplicar (apelar) de la sentencia: To appeal against the sentence.

Tachar de ligero: To tax one with levity.
Tener á menos hablar á uno: Not to deign to speak to one.
Tenerse de pie: To stand on foot.
Teñir de (en) negro: To dye black.
Tomar á pecho: To take to heart.
Tomar hacia la derecha: To turn to the right.
Trabajar á destajo: To do work by the job.
Trabarse de palabras: To quarrel.
Transportar á lomo: To carry on one's back.

Varar en la playa: To run aground.
Velar á los muertos: To watch over the dead.
Vengarse de una ofensa: To avenge an insult.
Vengarse en el ofensor: To avenge oneself on the offender.
Venir á casa: To come home.
Ver de hacer algo: To try and do something.
Vestir á la moda: To dress in the fashion.
Vestir de máscara: To dress in fancy dress.
Vestirse de paño: To dress in cloth.
Vivir á su gusto: To live after one's taste.

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR AND AUXILIARY VERBS

The Simple tenses only are given—Compound tenses are formed with the verb "haber" followed by the past participle.

Estar is used—
i. To denote state in locality, viz., "to be" in a place.
ii. To denote condition (as opposed to inherent quality).

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

Use Ser—
    i. Before a noun (even if an adjective or an article intervenes).
   ii. When "to be" is used impersonally.
  iii. When "to be" denotes possession.
   iv. Before pobre, rico, felis, and infeliz.

=APPENDIX VI=

PRINCIPAL VERBS, THE LAST ROOT VOWEL OF WHICH CHANGES INTO A DIPHTHONG WHEN THE STRESS OF THE VOICE FALLS ON IT, AS—-

Pres. Ind., Pienso, piensas, piensa,—,—, piensan. Pres. Subj., Piense, pienses, piense,—,—, piensen. Imperative, Piensa, piense,—,—, piensen.

Pres. Ind., Entiendo, entiendes, entiende,—,—, entienden. Pres. Subj., Entienda, entiendas, entienda,—,—, entiendan. Imperative, Entiende, entienda,—,—, entiendan.

Pres. Ind., Siento, sientes, siente,—,—, sienten. Pres. Subj., Sienta, sientas, sienta, sintamos,[217] sintáis,[217] sientan. Imperative, Siente, sienta, sintamos,[217]—, sientan.

Pres. Ind., Acuerdo, acuerdas, acuerda,—,—, acuerdan. Pres. Subj., Acuerde, acuerdes, acuerde,—,—, acuerden. Imperative, Acuerda, acuerde,—,—, acuerden.

Pres. Ind., Muevo, mueves, mueve,—,—, mueven. Pres. Subj., Mueva, muevas, mueva,—,—, muevan. Imperative, Mueve, mueva,—,—, muevan.

Pres. Ind., Duermo, duermes, duerme,—,—, duermen. Pres. Subj., Duerma, duermas, duerma, durmamos,[217] durmáis,[217] duerman. Imperative, Duerme, duerma, durmamos,[217]—, duerman.

[Footnote 216: Morir (to die) is the only verb conjugated like Dormir; but past part. Muerto.]

Acertar (to hit the mark)
Acrecentar (to increase)
Alentar (to encourage)
Apretar (to squeeze)
Arrendar (to lease, to hire)
Asentarse (to sit down)
Aterrar (to pull down)
Atravesar (to cross)

Calentar (to warm)
Cegar (to blind)
Cerrar (to shut, to close)
Comendar (to commend)
Comenzar (to begin)
Confesar (to confess)

Empedrar (to pave)
Empezar (to begin)
Encerrar (to shut in)
Enmendar (to correct)

Adherir[218] (to adhere)
Adquirir[218] (to acquire)
Advertir[218] (to notice, to warn)
Arrepentirse (to repent)
Asentir (to assent)

Acostarse (to go to bed)
Almorzar (to breakfast)
Apostar (to bet)
Aprobar (to approve)
Avergonzarse (to be ashamed)

Recordar (to remind, to remember)
Renovar (to renew)
Rodar (to roll)
Rogar (to pray)

LIST OF PRINCIPAL VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE "PEDIR"—

Ceñir (And all in eñir) (to gird)
Competir (to compete)
Concebir (to conceive)
Corregir (to correct)

END

================================================== Transcriber's note: The edition of this book that was used to produce the document is as follows: ==================================================

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

C. A. TOLEDANO

LATE LECTURER IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER; EXTERNAL EXAMINER, UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM; H.M. ASSISTANT INSPECTOR FOR SPANISH; SPANISH MASTER AT THE MANCHESTER MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, MANCHESTER ATHENAEUM, ETC.

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED

LONDON

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E. C. BATH, NEW YORK AND
MELBOURNE UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME

=PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR=. By F.W.M DRAPER, M A. (Cantab.), Licencié ès Lettres.

=KEY TO COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR=

For Complete List of Pitman's Language Text-books, see Catalogue contained at the end of this book.

A MI SEÑOR PADRE,

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