The Project Gutenberg eBook of Orthography, by Elmer W. Cavins

This book is prepared for teachers and pupils who use the Illinois State Course of Study. The outline in Orthography for the Seventh and Eighth Years is the basis of all that is included herein. Three fifths or more of this work is word analysis which, valuable as it is, teachers as a rule are unable to teach without the aid of a text, never having learned much of it themselves. What, for example, can the average teacher unaided do toward writing a list of words to be analyzed which contain the root ann, meaning year? He might turn in the dictionary to annual, anniversary, and annuity, but he must fall back on his acquired knowledge for such as, biennial, centennial, millennium, perennial, and superannuate. And having the list, very many teachers, as well as pupils, need help in the analysis.

The aim of this book has been to set down in an orderly and convenient form such facts as are needed by those who follow the State Course of Study.

Emphasis has been placed upon word analysis. The author believes that this has more value in education than is generally attributed to it. When Mr. Kennedy named his work on word analysis “What Words Say”, he gave it the best possible title. Composite words have a wealth of meaning; each syllable is significant. And, as a rule, only to those who can read this significance does the word yield its full meaning. Accuracy is the mark of a scholar. Accuracy in speech and in the understanding of speech cannot be attained by those whose knowledge of words is vague and general. Pupils should early learn how to interpret what words say, and to discriminate carefully in the use of words, for these are the tools which they are to use in all the various departments for acquiring knowledge.

INTRODUCTION[4]
BY DR. EDWIN C. HEWETT.

I have long thought that the careful, discriminating study of words is much neglected in our schools. And I am glad to approve, and help to forward, anything that will promote such a study.

Not only will such a study improve a person's language greatly, but it will, at the same time, do much to improve the clearness and precision of his thinking; thought and language have a reciprocal effect.

If a child, while young, can be made to be interested in words themselves,—their origin, their exact meaning, their relations to each other and some of the changes in their meaning which result from their use,—he will be likely to retain that interest through life; it will be more likely to increase than to diminish.

It seems often to be assumed that a student can do nothing profitably with the study of words made up from Greek and Latin roots till he has acquired some mastery of those languages. But I know from experience and much observation that this is not true. Why should it be? Must one master Greek and Latin before he can understand that, in English words, graph means write; ge means earth; phone means sound; cur means run; fin means limit; port means carry, etc.?

And then having learned the meaning of the prefixes and suffixes, is it preposterous to train him to know the[5] etymological significance of a few hundred words by showing him how they are built up?

Of course, we know that many words in common use have shades of meaning quite different from, and in some cases almost opposite to, their literal significance. But will not the student be better able to understand these derived meanings by knowing their literal significance than in any other way? At any rate, I am fully persuaded that such a study of words as this book proposes can be made very profitable to those pupils for whose use it is prepared.

The teacher will find, however, that the teaching of this subject will require much careful labor on his part. The mere learning of the meaning of prefixes and suffixes and of the roots themselves, with the brief remarks on the meaning of some of the words, will need to be supplemented by a careful mastery of it all on his part. And to this must be added much thought of his own, together with careful research in the great dictionaries. But to the earnest and intelligent teacher, such thought and research will yield very rich fruit in his own thinking, and in his use of English speech.

I cheerfully commend the book as a move in the right direction; and as adapted, in my opinion, to do much to supply a serious lack in the present work of the schools.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.[6]

1. From the lists given in this book omit such words as in your opinion are beyond the vocabulary of your pupils.

2. All words given for the first month's work are either defined or illustrated below the lists. This is done to help make clear the method of showing their literal significance. Further along in each year's work only the most difficult words are explained. Insist that pupils in every case where it is possible define or illustrate so as to show the literal meaning, else much of the value of the study is lost.

And, moreover, the ordinary, or current meaning, where it differs from the literal, should be given. Very many of the words have various uses. Thorough work requires that these be illustrated. This necessitates a free use of the dictionary.

It is strongly urged that the pupils (with the aid of the teacher when necessary) try to find an appropriate sentence to illustrate each word and write the same in an orderly way in a note book for the purpose.

In work of this kind a teacher should not underrate the value of reviews. By this means fix facts on the minds of your pupils, especially the meanings of roots and prefixes. Since these meanings are given in a single word, reviews may proceed rapidly.

One convenient method of recitation in this subject is to send pupils to the blackboard without their books, assign them by turns words to be analyzed according to the examples given under “Directions to Pupils”, and then let each pupil read to the class what he has written on the board.

DIRECTIONS TO PUPILS.[7]

Given in the seventh and eighth years' work of the State Course of Study are 45 prefixes, 64 roots, and 33 suffixes,—in all 142 elements or component parts of words. In this book a list of words is furnished to illustrate each element, the average number of words in each list being about eleven, and the total number of different words analyzed, or partially analyzed, is over 1200.

1. Name its component parts—root, prefix, and suffix—and give the literal meaning of each.

2. Combine these meanings in a definition, supplying additional words if necessary, to make the sense complete. In exceptional cases, however, the exact literal meanings of the parts cannot be put together in a good definition. One or more of the parts must then be omitted entirely, or represented by words which are not exactly literal.

(Caution: Carefully distinguish verbs, adjectives and nouns. Do not define adjectives as nouns or verbs, or vice versa. Do not, for illustration, say audible is that which can be heard; but rather say audible means capable of being heard.)

A careful study of the five examples given above will reveal that to analyze words a pupil must—

4. Gather illustrations. This is not easy, but it should not be neglected, for it is the most practical feature of word analysis. Pupils should help each other, and the teacher may contribute when his help is needed. One good illustration for a difficult word might suffice the entire class.[9]

PART ONE

Word Analysis.

SEVENTH YEAR.

2. To shorten, to take from; to make briefer.

3. To lead away; to carry off by force; to kidnap.

4. An abject person is one sunk to low condition (as if cast from the society of others).

5. An ablution is a washing or cleansing; especially a religious rite.

6. The inhabitants of a country from the beginning. The earliest inhabitants of which anything is known.

7. Broken or appearing as if broken away or off; as an abrupt cliff.

8. To suck up; to drink in. A brick will absorb a pint of water.

9. To loosen or set free, as from some duty or obligation

10. To divert from the proper use; to misuse.

1. The act of speaking well to or of; a blessing pronounced at the close of divine service.

2. The act of doing good; making a charitable donation.

4. Doing or effecting good; performing acts of kindness.

5. Pertaining to what does good, is useful or profitable.

6. A good deed done; an act of kindness.

7. Willing to do good; well-wishing; charitable.

8. Good and kind of heart; expressive of gentleness or kindness. Literally, of a good kind.

9. Being kind and gracious.

10. Note well; observe carefully; take notice. Usually abbreviated to N. B.

1. Think the circumference in the process of making;[11] carry the crayon around the circle to produce the circumference.

2. A bending around; a wave or bend of the voice embracing both a rise and a fall on the same syllable.

3. The act of speaking in a round about way; particularly a studied indirectness or evasiveness of speech.

4. The act of sailing around; especially the earth or globe.

5. To draw a bounding line round; hence to mark out the limits of.

6. Looking around on all sides; examining carefully.

7. That which attends or relates to (stands around, as it were,) an event, a person or a thing.

8. To circumvent one in any enterprise is to come around in an unexpected way for the purpose of gaining an advantage.

1. To speak against; to assert the opposite of.

2. To come against; to oppose.

3. To stand against; to set in opposition to, as two or more objects of a like kind with a view to showing their difference.

4. To act against; to do what hinders.

5. To weigh against with equal weight; equal weight, power or influence acting in opposition to.

6. A turning against; debate, contention.

1. Relating to a year; yearly.[12]

2. That day which returns once a year commemorating some event.

3. A stated sum of money payable yearly.

4. Happening once in two years; lasting two years.

5. Consisting of or lasting a hundred years. Happening every hundred years.

6. A period or interval of a thousand years.

7. Throughout the year; lasting, perpetual.

8. Condition of being beyond the years of active service; impaired or disabled by length of years.

1. Literally, a little star; a mark like a star used to refer to a note in the margin.

2. Formed like a star.

3. One who speaks about the stars; one who foretells events by the stars, or interprets the supposed influence of the stars.

4. The science which treats of the distribution, arrangement and size of heavenly bodies (stars).

5. An unfavorable aspect of a star or planet, hence an ill portent, a calamity.[13]

1. To disburse money is to pay it out (from one's purse).

2. (Literally, hearts apart.) Want of harmony; not agreeing in opinion, or in action.

3. The discussion of a question shakes it apart, for a more thorough examination.

4. When two minds differ, one bears in one direction, the other in another, and thus they bear apart. They do not agree.

5. To pour out and cause to spread apart, as a fluid; to circulate; to scatter.

6. To place apart or out of proper position.

7. To dismiss a congregation is to send the people (or allow them to go) apart to their homes.

8. To dispel fear is to drive it away.

9. To dispose of property is to part with it (put it apart from one).

10. Rocks are disrupted when broken apart.

11. To dissect the eye of an ox is to cut it apart, for the purpose of examination.[14]

12. To distend is to stretch apart or spread in all directions; to dilate, to expand.

1. To go between parties for the purpose of reconciling those who differ; to plead in favor of another.

2. To seize or take between the starting point and destination; as to intercept a letter or messenger.

3. Frequent or habitual meeting or contact of one person with another (a running between, to and fro).

4. An interjection is a word thrown in between other words to express emotion or feeling.

5. An interloper is one who runs in between two parties to get the advantage which one would obtain from the other. One who intercepts and buys a basket of eggs between a farmer's wagon and a grocery store would, from the standpoint of the merchant, be an interloper.

6. To mix between or together.

7. To protect the eyes from a strong light interpose (place between the eyes and light) a shade.

8. To interrogate is to question. (The questions come between the answers.)[15]

9. One line intersects another when it cuts through it, or between its parts.

10. An interval is an open space or stretch between things or limits. Formerly it meant a space between walls.

11. To come between persons, things, or events.

12. A mutual exchange of views between two or more people.

The prefix non- may be joined to the leading word by means of a hyphen, or, in most cases, the hyphen may be dispensed with.

2. Com, with + pos, power + mentis, of mind. Literally, not with power of mind. Not of sound mind; not capable, mentally, of managing one's own affairs.

4. That which has not been described; difficult to describe; new, novel, odd.

5. Entity means thing or being; hence a nonentity is no thing or nothing. Often applied to a person or thing which counts for little or nothing.

9. Plus means more. Literally, a person is nonplused when he can do no more, or go no further; puzzled, confounded, embarrassed.

(It seems unnecessary to append definitions or illustrations to other words of the above list.)

1. To walk through or over. He got out of bed and perambulated the room for some minutes.

2. To take or obtain knowledge through the senses. To take with a thorough mental grasp; to understand.

3. By the hundred.

4. To pass through; as, a filter or strainer.

5. Lasting through the year, or through many years.

6. Thoroughly made; finished in every part; without blemish or defect.

7. To bore through; to make holes in; to pierce.

8. To form thoroughly; to execute, accomplish, or carry out.

9. “To perfume means literally to smoke thoroughly. Hence to impregnate or fill with scent or odor.”—Kennedy.

10. By this permit we may go through the factory.

11. To entangle thoroughly. “Love with doubts perplexes still the mind.”

12. To follow with persistence or thoroughness. To follow close after; specifically to afflict or harass on account of adherence to a particular creed. The early Christians suffered persecution.

13. To take a thorough stand; to continue steadily in some state or course of action; especially in spite of opposition.

14. To go through; to spread throughout the whole.

15. To turn in another direction; to turn thoroughly from a former course. “Blessings unused pervert into a waste.”

16. Having a way through. “—— to have their way free and pervious to all places.”

1. To shut.[17]

2. A small side room in which, clothing and other articles are kept shut away from view.

3. To bring to an end. Literally to shut in or together (obsolete); as, “The body of Christ was concluded in the grave.”

4. To un-shut; to open or uncover; to make known.

9. To put an obstacle before, or in the way of, in order to shut out; to prevent or hinder.

10. One who is shut up (or has shut himself back) from the world or public view.

11. To shut off or keep apart or aside, as from company or society.

1. The heart or innermost part of a thing; as the core of an apple.

2. Relating to the heart; hearty, sincere.

3. Heart with heart; hence unity of sentiment or harmony. “Love quarrels oft in concord end.”

4. Heart shaped; as a cordate leaf.

5. Heart apart from heart; hence disagreement or want of harmony.

6. State of being out of harmony.

7. Record; through the Latin recordari, to remember (or know again). To get by heart; hence to register; to write or inscribe an authentic account of.

8. Having heart; hence bravery, calmness, firmness. (The heart is accounted the seat of bravery; hence the derivative sense of courage.)

1. The body only; hence a dead body.

2. A body of soldiers.

3. Relating to the body; as corporal punishment.

4. A corpulent person is fleshy; literally full of body.

5. To make into a body in the legal sense, so that a number of individuals may transact business legally as one person.

6. A small body; a minute particle.

7. In the middle ages, a close-fitting body garment, having sleeves and skirt.

8. Literally, you may have the body. A writ requiring the body of a person restrained of liberty to be brought into court that the lawfulness of the restraint may be investigated.

1. To take care of; to restore to health.

2. Capable of being cured or restored by care.

3. One who has the care of souls; a parish priest.

4. Formerly, curious meant full of care, or careful, nice, precise; as, “Men were not curious what syllables or particles they used.” Eager to learn; inquisitive.

5. To care for the hands and nails.

6. A thing is made accurate by giving care to it.

7. Literally, to care for; to look after; as, “I procured that rumor to be spread.” To obtain; to get.

8. Aside, or free, from care, anxiety, or fear; safe.

1. The introductory part of a discourse. Formerly preamble meant, to walk over beforehand; as, “I will take a thorough view of those who have preambled this by path.”

3. That which has gone before. A previous example or usage which has, in some measure at least, become established; as, a custom, habit, or rule.

4. A headlong fall; an abrupt descent. Literally, head foremost.

5. See second month, page 16.

6. Ripe in understanding at an early age or before due time; as, a precocious child.

7. A precursor is a forerunner. That which precedes an event and indicates its approach.

8. To determine beforehand by an unchangeable purpose or decree. “Whom He did foreknow He also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of His Son.”

11. To prefer one thing to another is to bring or set it before the other in estimation. To hold in greater liking or esteem.

13. A prejudgment formed without due examination. “Prejudice is the child of ignorance.”

14. Literally, before the threshold. Preceding or leading up to something more important; as preliminary arrangements.

18. A preposition is so called because usually placed before the word with which it is phrased.

19. Anything is preposterous when it is contrary to nature, reason, or common sense. Literally, having that last which ought to be first; as, the “cart before the horse”.

20. To lay down beforehand in writing as a rule of action. “Prescribe not us our duties.[20]”

1. A superannuate is one who has become impaired or disabled by length of years. Specifically, one living beyond the years of active service and allowed to retire on a pension.

2. Lofty with pride; overbearing. “A supercilious nabob of the east, haughty and purse-proud.”

3. Literally, not extending below (i. e. in depth beyond)[21] the surface; shallow. “She despised superficiality, and looked deeper than the color of things.”

4. Overflowing; more than is needed; as, a composition abounding with superfluous words.

5. Being beyond or exceeding the powers of nature. Miracles were performed by supernatural power.

6. Beyond a stated or required number; as, a supernumerary officer in a regiment.

7. To put over or upon; as to superpose one rock upon another.

8. A superscription is a writing over or upon; especially an address on a letter.

9. A superstructure is something built over something else; particularly an edifice in relation to its foundation.

10. To oversee; as, to supervise the erection of a house.

2. A tricuspid tooth has three points.

4. A three-toothed or three-pronged spear. Specifically, a fishing spear.

“His nature is too noble for the world;
He would not flatter Neptune for his trident,
Or Jove for his power to thunder.”

6. A trigamist is one who has been three times married; especially one who has three wives or three husbands at the same time.

7. Trigonometry literally means three angle measure.[22] That branch of mathematics which treats of the relations of sides and angles of triangles, and applies them to other figures.

9. A trinomial in algebra is a quantity consisting of three terms.

10. A trio is a musical composition in three parts.

11. A tripod has three feet or legs; as a three-legged table or stool, a three-footed kettle or vase.

14. A triumvir is one of three men united in office; specifically in ancient Rome.

15. The triune is three in one; the three-fold personality of one divine being,—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

16. Trivial formerly meant, pertaining to three ways; where three ways or roads cross; of the cross roads; hence, common, commonplace, such as may be picked up anywhere; ordinary; trifling; of little worth.

1. To lead or carry away wrongfully and usually by force; to kidnap; as, to abduct a child.

2. To lead or bring to; to bring forward or offer as an argument in a case. “I too prize facts and shall adduce nothing else.”

3. An aqueduct is a leadway or artificial channel for conveying water.

4. A guide conducts a traveler when he goes with him and, in a sense, leads him along a safe route.

5. To deduct is to take from; to draw away.

6. A ductile metal is one capable of being drawn into wire; as, copper, platinum, steel, etc.[23]

8. To develop mentally and morally by instruction. Educate literally means to lead forth, to draw out.

11. An introduction is the initial step which leads people into one another's acquaintance.

14. (1) To lead or bring back to a former state; as,

“It were but right
And equal to reduce me to my dust.”

(2) To bring to any specific state or form.

1. A fact is something done or brought to pass.

3. Quality of being easily done.

5. Manufacture formerly meant to make by hand.

6. An effect is something worked out, or done.

7. A thing is perfect when thoroughly made, or finished.

11. Sacrifice literally means to make sacred; to set apart as sacred.

12. Pacific means pertaining to peace; suited to make or restore peace.

13. A feat is an act, a deed, an exploit; something done.

14. To defeat means to overcome or vanquish. Literally to un do.

16. The fashion of a thing is, in a sense, the make of it.

Note.—fy, meaning to make, is found as a suffix in derivatives too numerous to mention; as, purify (to make pure), rarefy (to make rare), classify (to make or put into a class), etc.[24]

1. See first month, page 10.

2. When two or more persons confer they bring together opinions and facts on some special subject.

3. See second month, page 13.

5. To bring near to; to present for acceptance; as, to offer one's services.

6. To bring or put forward; to hold forth so that a person may take; as, to proffer a gift.

7. To direct for information. Literally, to carry back; as, “Mahomet referred his new laws to the angel Gabriel, by whose direction he gave out they were made.”

9. To suffer is to bear under; to undergo.

Note.—Ferr is an irregular Latin verb the principal parts of which are: fero, ferre, tuli, latus. The last form is found in a number of English words; as, dilate, elate, legislate, relate, superlative, translate. The meaning of the root in these words, as in the ten given above, is bear, carry, or bring.

1. An anti climax is opposed to or in contrast with a climax. In rhetoric it is a figure or fault of style consisting of an abrupt descent (down the ladder) from stronger to weaker expressions.

3. An antidote is something given to counteract (act against) poison or disease.

5. Those who live at opposite points on the globe so that their feet are directly toward each other are antipodes. Figuratively, things opposed to each other.

6. In rhetoric an antithesis is a figure of speech which consists of one idea placed against another; a contrast.

8. A person is antisocial when he is averse or opposed to society, social intercourse or companionship.[26]

1. A diagonal is a line across from angle to angle.

2. A diagram is that which is marked out by lines drawn or written across; as, a figure, a plan.

3. Dialect is speech or language by means of which ideas are communicated (across) from one to another.

6. The diapason is one of certain stops in the organ, so called because it extends through all notes of the scale.

7. The diaphragm is a membranous partition or fence between the thorax and abdomen.

1. A fort is a stronghold.

2. To make strong; to strengthen or secure by means of forts, batteries, or other military works.

3. Ess is a feminine ending. A “maiden fortress” is a fortification which has never been taken. A fortress is a very strong fort.

4. An effort is a putting out of one's strength for the accomplishment of some end.

5. Fortitude is strength or firmness of mind in meeting danger, pain, or adversity.

6. Force is strength in general, physical, mental, moral.

9. To comfort is to strengthen with hope and cheer; to give consolation to.

10. The piano forte is an instrument having both soft and loud (strong) tones. The name is generally shortened to piano.

1. A thing is frail when it is easily broken.

2. Frailty is a quality of things easily broken.

3. A fracture is a break; as of a bone.

4. A fraction is a part, as if broken off.

5. A fractious person is one apt to break out into a passion.

6. “The stalk of ivy is tough and not fragile” (capable of being broken).—Bacon.

7. A fragment is that which is broken off.

8. To infringe is to break in upon; to trespass on another's rights.

1. Fraternal means brotherly; like brothers.

2. An organization in which the members hold one another in brotherly relations.

3. To fraternize means to make a brother of; to receive into a fraternity.

4. Frater. A brother; especially a monk.

5. Friar. A brother of any religious order, but especially one of certain monastic orders of the Roman Catholic church.

6. Friary. A home for friars (brothers); a monastery.

1. A monarch is a sole or supreme ruler.

2. A monogamist is one who believes in marriage with one person only.

3. A monogram is a single character formed of two or more letters interwoven (as if done at one writing).

4. A speaking by one person.

5. Monomania is a derangement of mind in regard to a single subject only.

6. A monomial in algebra is a quantity which consists of a single term.

7. A monopoly is the sole (or single) right to sell a certain article, or to sell it at a given place.

9. Monotheism is the doctrine of belief that there is but one God.

10. A monotone is a single tone without harmony or variation in pitch.[29]

1. A parable is a short fictitious narrative placed (thrown) beside something which it is intended to illustrate.

2. A paragraph was originally a mark or note of comment written beside the line or place where a division should be made; now a distinct part of a discourse or writing.

3. Parallel lines extend beside one another.

4. Paraphrasing is telling (speaking) the same thing in other words.

5. A parasite is an animal or plant which lives beside or in another organism on which it feeds.

6. Marks of parenthesis are often used for a word, phrase, clause, or sentence put in by way of explanation to what it stands beside.

1. Literally, a syllable is two or more sounds taken together, or uttered by one impulse of the voice. Many syllables, however, comprise but one sound.

2. Sympathy is feeling with another, especially his sorrows and misfortunes.

3. A symphony is a sounding together; a harmony of sounds.

4. Synchronous. Happening or existing at the same time.

5. Synonym. Literally, a word having the same name. But it is applied to words of like or kindred meaning.

6. A synopsis is a view of the whole together. A summary giving a general view of some subject.

7. The putting of two or more things together. Synthesis is the opposite of analysis.

1. Letter (from L. linere, to besmear); so called because smeared on parchment and not cut on wood.

2. Letters usually means literature in general; hence knowledge gained from books; literary culture.

6. Alliteration is a repetition of the same letter or sound at the beginning of two or more words in close succession. Examples: “A whole fleet of bulky bottomed boats.” “What a tale of terror now their turbulency tells.” Literally, letter to letter.

8. In obliterate, ob means against or the reverse. The reverse of besmear is to rub off; hence to obliterate means to rub out, to erase.

Note.—Other words from the same root are, literally, illiteracy, literati, literature, literalize, literalist.

1. Bimana is a term applied to man as a special order of mammalia. Animals having two hands.

2. To emancipate a slave is to take him out of the hands of his master.

3. The word manacle comes from manicula, which means handcuff.[32]

4. Literally, maneuver means a working with the hands. To make adroit and artful moves; as, of an army.

5. Manner relates to the way of handling or doing things.

6. Manual. Performed, made, or used by the hands; as manual labor, manual arts.

1. Celibacy is the state of being unmarried; especially that of a bachelor or of one bound by vows not to marry.

3. Magistracy. The office of master; of one clothed with power, as a civil officer.

4. Obduracy is the state of being hardened, especially against moral influences; hard-hearted; stubbornly wicked.

6. The papacy is the office of the pope.

7. Intimacy is the state of being inmost or near in relationship.

This suffix is seldom used except with names of countries and states. It means, pertaining to what is of that country or state; as, American history, American products, American people.

1. Literally, an adversary is one who turns toward another (to oppose him); hence, one who turns against another.

2. That day which returns each year commemorating some event is an anniversary.

3. An antiquary is one who collects and examines old (ancient) things; as, coins, medals, weapons.

4. A dromedary is a thorough-bred Arabian camel of more than ordinary speed and bottom; hence well adapted for running.

5. A missionary is one who is sent on a mission; especially one sent to propagate religion.

6. An emissary is one who is sent out; especially one sent on secret business, as a spy. “I am charged with being an emissary to France.”—Robert Emmet.

7. A notary was formerly one whose vocation was to make notes or memoranda of acts of others. Now, a public officer usually spoken of as notary public.

8. A salary was formerly an allowance (that which was) given to soldiers with which to buy salt.

9. A secretary was formerly one who was intrusted with the private or secret matters of his chief. One employed to do clerical work.

Ary is also a suffix of adjectives, meaning relating to; as in, arbitrary, contrary, culinary, exemplary, antiquary, hereditary, military, primary, revolutionary, solitary, secondary, visionary.

Ary also means place where; as in, granary, infirmary, library, seminary, sanctuary.[35]

1. Append. To hang or attach to.

2. An appendage is that which hangs to something as a part of it. “This little pensive appendage or tender (the moon) to our fuming engine of an earth.”—De Quincey.

3. Depend. To hang from; to be fastened or attached to something above; to rely upon.

4. A dependent is one who hangs (figuratively), or relies on another for support.

8. Impend. To hang over, be ready to fall; threaten. “We seriously consider the dreadful judgments that now impend the nation.”—Penn.

9. A pendant is that which hangs from something else; as, an earring or a tassel.

10. The pendulum of a clock hangs and swings to and fro.

11. A plumb line is a line perpendicular to the horizon, hanging (through the air).

12. Suspend. To hang under or from beneath.

13. Suspenders are that from which trousers are hung.

1. See fourth month, page 25.

2. Biped. A two-footed animal, as man.

3. Centiped. An animal so called from having a great many feet (indefinitely a hundred).

4. Expedite. Literally, to take the feet out of entanglement; hence, to hasten.

6. Impede. Literally, to entangle the feet. To obstruct the progress, motion, or effect of.[37]

8. The pedal is something made to be moved by the feet.

9. A peddler, literally, is a trader who travels on foot.

10. Pedestal. That which forms the base (standing place for the feet) of a statue, column, vase, etc.

12. A peduncle is a (little) footstalk of a flower or leaf.

15. An octopus is an eight-footed or armed cuttlefish.

16. Pedigree means, literally, crane's foot. Why so called is uncertain, but supposed to be on account of a fancied resemblance of the lines of a pedigree, as drawn out on paper, to a crane's foot. (Compare crow's foot, applied to the lines of age about the eyes.)

1. One word is in apposition to another when it is placed near to it, by way of explanation.

3. Being made by putting together separate parts or elements; as, a composite flower.

5. One of the several parts or elements which, when placed together, form the whole, is a component part.

6. To compound is to put or mix together two or more elements or ingredients.

8. To put away for safe keeping; as, to deposit money in a bank.

10. To dispose of anything is to put it apart from one; to get rid of it.[38]

11. To place out where all may see; to uncover; as, to expose fraud.

15. An impostor is one who puts burdens on others; commonly applied to one who assumes a character for the purpose of deceiving others.

18. Position. The manner in which a thing is placed; the state of being placed.

20. To transpose a quantity from one side of an equation to another is to place it across.

1. Arctic literally means pertaining to the Bear; i. e. the northern constellations called the Great and Little Bears; hence, pertaining to the northern polar regions.

2. Aromatic. Pertaining to an agreeable or spicy odor; fragrant.

3. One's civic duties are those pertaining to him as a citizen, in distinction from those as a soldier.

4. Classic pertains to what is first class in literature or art, especially that of the Greeks and Romans.

5. Comic pertains to revelry; to what provokes mirth; as a comic song.

9. Empiric pertains to experience, or what is founded on experience; relying on or guided by practical experience rather than scientific knowledge.[39]

13. Prosaic means pertaining to prose; especially to that which lacks animation or interest.

14. Plastic means pertaining to the process of forming or modeling; capable of being moulded into a desired form.

15. Graphic means pertaining to the art of writing or drawing. A graphic illustration is generally in the form of a drawing.

1. The distinguishing quality of acid is its sourness.

2. Having the quality or appearance of flowers; specifically, flushed with red; as a florid countenance.

5. That which is insipid has not those qualities which affect the taste; tasteless.

6. An intrepid person is brave and daring; he does not tremble with fear.

13. Torpid. Benumbed; insensible; inactive; as an animal in hibernation, when it passes its time in sleep.

1. (ad, to) An adjective is a word which is added (thrown) to a noun to qualify its meaning.

2. Alternative in the plural means two things of which one or the other may be taken as a choice.

5. The executive of a state or nation is the one whose duty it is to follow out the decrees of the law making bodies; i. e. to see that the laws are obeyed.

6. An expletive is that word which fills out the sentence that contains it; as an expletive adverb.

8. (in, not) An infinitive is that verb which is not limited by person and number.

9. (loco, place) A locomotive is that which can move cars from place to place.

12. The positive is that which has a real standing place. Not admitting of doubt; definitely laid down; clearly stated.

1. The coming together of two bodies; touching.

2. The act of communicating disease by the touch.

3. Having the quality of being imparted by touch; catching; as, contagious diseases.

4. To contaminate is to make impure by mixture (touching together).

5. Contiguity is the state of being within touching distance.

7. Entire. Whole or complete; not touched.

8. An integer is a complete or not touched whole; a whole number.

10. State of being untouched or unimpaired; freedom from corruption or impurity; as, integrity of character.

11. Tact is skill in touching; nice perception or discernment in dealing with others.

12. Intact. Not touched, especially by anything that misplaces, harms, or defiles.

13. Tactile. Relating to the sense of touch.

14. A tangent is a line which touches a curve.

15. Anything is tangible when it is capable of being touched, or perceived by senses.

1. (con, together) One who lives at the same time together with another is his contemporary; occurring or existing at the same time.

3. Extempore means, literally, out of the moment. On the spur of the moment; without previous study or preparation.

4. Relating to time as opposed to eternity; earthly, transient; as, our temporal affairs.

5. That which lasts for a brief time only; not permanent; as, a temporary scaffolding.

7. To temporize is to comply with the time or occasion; to yield to the current of opinion or circumstances; to “do as the times do”.

8. The modification of verbs to indicate time, is called tense.

9. Tempus fugit is a Latin phrase frequently met with in English. It means, literally, time flies.

1. To abstain from drink is to hold from it, to refrain voluntarily.

2. A vessel contains a liquid when it holds its particles together.

3. To detain the wages of a laborer is to hold them from him after they are due.

5. Maintain literally means to hold by the hand; to preserve from falling. To hold fast; to keep in possession; as, to maintain one's ground in battle.[43]

7. Sustain. To hold up from beneath; to uphold; to support; to endure.

8. A tenant is one who holds land under another.

9. A tenet is an opinion or doctrine held as true.

10. Tenable. Capable of being held; as ground taken for argument.

11. Tenacious. Having the quality of holding fast.

12. One's tenure of office is that time during which he holds office.

1. To bury in the earth; as a dead body.

3. Situated or occurring under the surface of the earth; as subterranean forests—buried forests.

4. A terrace is a long mound or raised portion of earth.

5. Terra cotta is literally baked earth. A species of hard pottery used in building; ornamentation.

6. Terrestrial. Relating to the earth, earthly.

7. A terrier is one of a small breed of dogs, named from their propensity to scratch the ground or earth in pursuit of prey.

8. Territory. Relating to the earth; a large extent or tract of land.

9. The Mediterranean Sea is so called because situated in the middle of the land. In the middle of the ancient known world.

10. Terra del Fuego means literally the land of fire (del, of).

11. Terre Haute means high land. A city in Indiana situated on high land.

12. Terra firma is a Latin phrase, frequently met in English. It means firm land.[44]

1. Civics. The Science which treats of citizenship.

2. Ethics. The science of right conduct—of character-building.

3. Economics literally means, the science of managing the household; the science of the production and distribution of wealth, or the means of living well.

4. Mechanics. The science of machinery, or the theory of machines.

5. Optics. The science which treats of light and vision, and all that is connected with the phenomena of sight.

6. Physics. The science which treats of the forces of nature; as, gravitation, light, heat, electricity.

7. Phonics. The science of sound; especially of sounds produced by the human voice.

8. Politics. The science which treats of the government of states and cities.[45]

1. Altruism. The theory that devotion to the interests of others is the highest good.

2. Barbarism. The state of being foreign; rude in point of manners, arts and literature.

3. Egotism. The state of being self-centered, self-conceited, and unduly self-confident; selfish as opposed to altruistic.

4. Communism. A theory of government and social order according to which property is held in common, and the profits of all labor devoted to the general good.

5. The state of being a hero or having heroic qualities; as, lofty aim, fearlessness, fortitude.

6. Hypnotism. An artificially induced state of sleep, in which the mind becomes passive, but acts readily upon suggestion or direction.

7. Organism. The state of being composed of different organs or parts, working together and each necessary to the whole.

8. Sensualism. The state which regards the gratification of the senses as the highest good.

1. Apathy (a = without). State of being without feeling; lack of interest; mental indifference; sluggishness.

2. Antipathy. A state of feeling against or antagonistic to a person or thing; as, antipathy to spiders.[46]

3. Anarchy (an = without). State of being without rule; social and political disorder.

4. Bigamy (bi = two). State of being married twice; having two wives or two husbands at the same time.

5. Euphony (eu = well). State of being agreeable in sound; well-sounding.

6. Melancholy (melan = black). State of having black bile; gloomy state of mind arising from grief or natural indisposition.

7. Misanthropy (mis = hatred). State of having hatred for mankind; ill will for people in general.

9. Monopoly (mono = one). State of having the exclusive (sole) privilege or power to sell an article at a certain place and time.

11. Sympathy. State of feeling with another (as he feels) on account of his sufferings, misfortune, or joy.

Note.—The suffix y has the same meaning in the following words. They are, however, too simple to need defining; in fact, there are no simpler words on which to base definitions: airy, balky, bony, briny, chunky, downy, dusty, healthy, hearty, miry, musty, rusty, scaly, showy, sinewy, wealthy, worthy.

1. Pertaining to time; continuing a long time, as a chronic disease; hence mild as to intensity and slow as to progress.

2. Chronicler. One who records events in the order of their occurrence in time.

3. Chronology. The science of ascertaining the true historic order (in time) of past events and their exact dates.

4. Chronometer. Any instrument for measuring time; as, clock, watch, dial. Specifically, an instrument of great accuracy used on vessels for determining longitude.[47]

5. Synchronous. Occurring together in time; happening or existing at the same time.

6. Anachronism (ana = back). Any error in respect to dates. Literally, state of being placed at a wrong time. The significance of ana in this word is not clear; the original meaning probably was, the referring of an event to a time back of its correct date.

1. Geography. A description (writing) of the earth and its inhabitants.

2. Geology. The science which treats of the structure of the earth; of its history as regards rocks, minerals, rivers, valleys, mountains, etc.

3. Geometry. That branch of mathematics which treats of the measurement of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles. So called because one of its earliest and most important applications was to the measurement of the earth's surface.

4. George. A tiller (worker) of the earth; a farmer.

Note 1.—Other words, kindred to the above, containing this root-form are: geometric, geometrical, geometrician, geographic, geologize, geologist.

Note 2.—O is no part of the root. It is the “wedding ring” that ties roots of families together.

6. Graphite is a mineral used in lead pencils for writing.[48]

7. Lithograph. A writing on stone [Rare]. Made by printing (writing) from stone; as a picture.

8. Monograph. A written account or description of a single thing, or class of things.

9. Orthography. The art of writing words correctly (right), or according to standard usage.

10. Paragraph. (See fifth month, page 29.)

12. A photograph is produced by the action of light (writing, as it were,) upon chemically prepared paper.

13. Stenography is short (in a somewhat vague sense narrow) hand writing.

14. Topography. A written description of a particular place, town, or tract of land; especially the description of the physical features of a locality.

1. Logic. The science of reason.

3. An apology is a speech in defense of what appears to others wrong, the speaker thereby seeking relief from blame.

5. Decalogue. The ten commandments (speeches) given to Moses on Mount Sinai.

7. Epilogue. A speech or poem at the end of an argument or address; a speech upon (on top of, or in addition to) what has been said.

14. Psychology. The science which treats of the human soul (mind and spirit included) and its operations.[49]

EIGHTH YEAR.

(ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, denote the same as ad. The consonant is changed for the sake of euphony.)

1. To address a letter is to direct it to its destination.

2. One is adequate to a duty or occasion when equal to it.

3. To adhere is to stick to; as, a stamp to an envelope.

4. “Every great man has his adherents” (those who stick to him).

5. Adieu. A farewell; a commendation to the care of God.

6. An adjective is a word added (in a sense thrown) to a noun to modify its meaning.

7. Adjourn. To put off to another day, or indefinitely.

8. To admonish is to give a friendly warning to; to give advice.

9. To adapt is to fit to a certain purpose.

10. To adopt is to choose (to one's self); as to adopt a child.

11. Advent. The second coming of Christ (to the earth).[50]

12. To advertise goods is to cause the public to turn their attention to them.

13. To aggregate is to collect into a flock; to collect into a mass or sum.

14. To allure is to attempt to entice or draw (to) by the offer of some good, real or apparent.

15. To annex is to bind, join or add to, as a smaller thing to a greater.

16. Append means to hang or attach to, as by a string.

17. Affix. To fasten to; to add at the close or end.

18. Arrive literally means to come to the bank or shore (from out on the water). In present usage it means to reach any object or result.

19. Assail. To leap toward; to attack with violence.

20. Attach. To fasten to; to affix or connect.

1. The biceps is a muscle which draws up the forearm; so called because it has two heads or origins.[51]

2. The bicuspid teeth have two points.

3. A bicycle has two wheels or circles.

4. Biennial means lasting two years or occurring once in two years.

5. A bigamist is one who has been married twice, and who has two wives or two husbands at the same time.

6. The bimana are animals having two hands; as man.

7. A binomial in algebra is a quantity consisting of two terms.

8. A biped is an animal having but two feet; as man.

9. Biscuit were so called because formerly baked or cooked twice.

10. To bisect a line is to cut it into two equal parts.

11. Bivalve. Having two doors; as the clam. (Each side or shell is comparable to a door, opening and shutting on a hinge.)

12. Balances are so called because they consist of two plates or pans suspended from the balance beam.

1. A building collapses when its sides fall together; when it tumbles down.

2. To collect botanical specimens is to gather them together.

3. Two objects collide when they strike together.

4. A colloquy is a talking together of two or more people.

5. Commingle means to mix together; as people in society.[52]

6. Commiserate. To feel sorrow, pain or pity (with another).

7. A commotion is a moving together; a tumult.

8. Commute. To change one thing (with) for another; to exchange. To substitute a less thing for a greater.

9. Company formerly meant an assembly of people eating bread together.

10. Composition. The act of putting parts together to produce a harmonious whole.

11. One's compeer is the equal with himself in rank, age, prowess, etc.

12. Two people concur in regard to a matter when their minds run together; when they agree.

13. To confide in one is to have faith in him; to intrust secrets with him.

14. Concord means literally heart with heart; agreement; harmony.

15. Conflict. A striking together; hostile contest.

16. To congregate means to flock or assemble together.

17. Contact. A touching together; a close union of bodies.

18. Corroborate. To strengthen; to make more certain; to confirm. Two statements corroborate when one agrees with the other; each thus strengthens the other.

1. Decapitate. To take the head from the body; to behead.

2. The leaves of deciduous trees fall (down) once a year.

3. Define. To put down, or mark out the bounds or limit; to fence from; to determine the precise meaning; to describe accurately.[53]

4. Degrade. To reduce from a higher (down) to a lower rank or degree.

5. Dejected. Cast down in spirit; discouraged.

6. Depose. To put down; especially to remove from a throne or high station.

7. Depreciate. To put down the price; to reduce the value of.

8. Descend. To climb down.

9. Despicable. Deserving to be looked down upon; low, mean, contemptible.

10. Detract. To draw from; to take away; as, to take credit or reputation from.

1. Biceps. A large muscle of the upper arm, so called because it has two heads or origins.

2. Pertaining to the head; chief; principal; as the capital city.

3. One who is at the head; a leader; as the captain of a vessel, or a company of soldiers.

4. Capitulate. To surrender on stipulated terms or conditions; to draw up items under heads or chapters.

5. Decapitate. To take the head from the body.

6. Cabbage. A vegetable which has a head.

7. By the head; as a per capita tax.

8. A cap is a covering for the head.

9. A cape is a head of land.

1. Accede. To yield to; to agree; consent, concur; go to.

2. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun which goes before it, and for which the pronoun stands.

3. Exceed. To go beyond what is needed or expected.

4. To go between two persons as a mediator; especially to plead with the person who has some advantage over the other.

5. Precede. To go before in order of time.

6. To go on or forward; as proceed with your work.

7. Recede. To go back from a given position.

8. To go aside; to separate; as to secede from the church.

9. To go or follow after in order of time; as, one shock succeeded another with great rapidity.

Note 1.—The principal parts of the Latin verb are cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum. From this it appears that words 10-18 above are kindred in meaning and correspond to words 1-9.

Note 2.—Observe that in three of these words the root is spelled ceed, in the others cede.

1. Happening once in a hundred years. The Centennial Exposition was held in Philadelphia in 1876, one hundred years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

2. Divided into one hundred degrees. On the centigrade thermometer there are one hundred degrees between the freezing point and the boiling point.

3. Centimeter. The hundredth part of a meter (standard of measure).

4. Centiped. A segmented invertebrate animal of the[55] class nyrapod (Greek for many feet), so called because it has a great many (indefinitely one hundred) feet.

5. By the hundred; as, six per cent; that is, six cents on the dollar.

Note.—In defining the words in this list choose that meaning of the prefix from the four given above (in, into, on, not) which is most suitable; thus: imbibe means to drink in; immature, not ripe; immerse, to plunge into; indorse, to write on the back of.

2. An illiterate person is one not familiar with letters; one who has little or no learning.

5. Literally, anything is immense when it can not be measured; of vast extent.

7. Immortal. Not liable to death.

10. Having no way through (per = through); as, cloth which is impervious to water; waterproof.

14. An impulse is a sudden mental motive or feeling which tends to drive one on to say or do something.[57]

15. Not liable to punishment; freedom from the bad consequences which usually result from an act; as, the magician could eat fire with impunity.

16. In the flesh; as Christ was the incarnate Son of God.

17. Not mild, but harsh and severe; as inclement weather.

18. Not known; under an assumed name; disguised; as a nobleman traveling incognito.

21. A story is incredible when it is not capable of being believed; unworthy of belief.

26. Indent. To cut into points like a row of teeth.

29. Infant. A young babe (not yet able to speak).

35. Insect. A small animal apparently cut into segments.

40. Invert. To turn the outside in; to place in a contrary way.

1. A courier is one who runs, or goes hastily with a message.

2. The opinions of people concur when they agree, or run together.

3. A concourse is an assemblage of people who have come (or run) together.

4. A cursory glance is a hasty, and hence, a running glance.

5. A race course is a place for running.

7. To incur a debt is to run into it.

10. One who adds to his indorsement of a note or check the words “without recourse”, says in effect, “You can't run back on me for payment”.

1. One who joins a church on probation is given a trial to prove his worthiness before being fully admitted.

2. A hollow organ attached to the head or mouth (the forward portion) of the animal with which he feeds.

3. To put forward till tomorrow, or to put off from time to time. “Procrastination is the thief of time.[60]”

6. A profuse speaker pours forth ideas freely.

12. One's promise is his word, spoken or written, sent forth as evidence of something more substantial to follow.

16. When a young man proposes he puts the question before his lady.

19. A good provider sees necessities beforehand and prepares to meet them.

20. To provoke laughter is to call it forth.

1. Subdue. To lead or bring under authority; to conquer.[61]

2. Subjugate. To bring under the yoke of power or dominion.

3. Sublunar. Situated underneath the moon; hence earthly.

6. Subpoena. A writ commanding attendance under penalty.

7. Subscribe. To bind one's self to, by writing one's name underneath; as to subscribe to the terms of a contract.

8. Subside. To sit (or settle) under (down).

10. Substance. That which underlies (stands under) all outward manifestation.

11. Subterranean. Situated or occurring under the surface of the earth.

12. The subtrahend is placed under the minuend to be drawn from it.

13. Suburb. A town or village so near to a city that it may be used for residence by those doing business in the city.

15. One who goes or follows after; as, a successor in office.

16. Succumb. To lie under discouragement, rather than to surmount it.

19. Certain fumes or vapors under the mouth (or throat), will suffocate one.

20. Support. To carry on; keep up; as to support a conversation; to support a war. To bear the weight of, especially by holding up from beneath (under).

1. Final. Pertaining to the end; the last.

2. Finale. The end of a musical composition.

3. Finish. To make an end of.

4. Fine. Well finished. Also, a penalty assessed at the end of the case.

5. Refine. Finished over (or again).

6. Finite. Having a limit in power or knowledge.

7. Infinite. Having no limit in power or knowledge.

8. Confine. To keep within limits or bounds.

9. Superfine. Over or extra finish.

1. A fluent speaker uses smooth and flowing language.

2. People of affluence have wealth flowing to them.

3. The confluence of two streams is their flowing together.

4. Influence literally means flowing in. The bringing about a result by a gradual process; gradual because flowing.

5. Influenza. A disease, somewhat allied to a cold, formerly attributed to the influence of the stars.

8. A fluid is so called because it is capable of flowing.

9. Flush. To flow swiftly.

4. Agnosticism. The doctrine or theory that man has not any real or absolute knowledge of anything, but can know only “impressions”.

5. Anarchy. A state of society in which there is no authority or ruling power.

6. Anecdote [ec (ex) = out]. Originally a personal or biographical incident not given out for publication.

7. That which causes a loss of sensation; hence, one who has taken an anesthetic is without the feeling of pain.

10. Asylum. Originally a place of refuge where criminals or debtors were free from (without) the right of seizure.

11. Atheist. One who is without belief in the existence of a God.

12. Atom. The smallest particle of matter; hence a particle which cannot be further cut or divided.

1. Epicycle. A circle whose center moves around upon, or in, the circumference of another circle; as the orbit of the moon in its motion with the earth around the sun.[65]

4. Epigram. Literally, to write upon. A short, pointed poem, or a bright thought concisely and sharply expressed.

5. Episode. Something which happens upon the way, or comes in incidentally to the main enterprise.

7. Epithet. An adjective or term placed upon a person or thing and expressing some quality especially appropriate to that person or thing.

8. Epizoötic. A disease upon many animals in a community.

4. To become ingratiated with another is to get into his favor. “The pigmy had contrived to ingratiate himself into every man's affection.”—Stanley.

5. An ingrate is not thankful for benefits received.

7. One in disgrace is out of (away from) favor with others.

9. An agreement is entered into according to the pleasure of both parties.

10. Gratis. Out of, or because of, favor; without recompense.

11. Grace. Literally, pleasing; beloved.

[In defining words of this ending, combine the meaning of the suffix with the meaning of the root; thus, cretaceous means having the quality of chalk.]

1. State of holding from something which tempts and entices; as, abstinence from strong drink.

2. (See third month, page 63.)

3. State of being actively desirous (wishing) for the well-being of others. “The laws of social benevolence require that every man should try to assist others by his experience.”

4. Condolence. State of being in grief or sympathy with others on account of their afflictions.

5. Confidence. State of being confident (of having faith in others or in one's self).

6. Dependence. State of being dependent (of hanging [relying] on others for support).

7. Impotence. State of being impotent (of having no power; weak; feeble).

8. Omnipotence. State of being all powerful.

9. Reticence. State or quality of being silent; refraining from speech.

10. Sequence. State of being sequent (following); order of following.[68]

1. A ticket will admit you (let you go) to the entertainment.

2. To place in custody; to entrust with; as to commit a fund to the care of trustees; to commit (send) a prisoner to jail.

3. To send or give out; as, the fountain emits water.

4. To let go by; to neglect; to overlook; as, to omit a fact.

5. A permit will let you go through the factory.

6. To remit is to send (back) value for value received.

7. To give up or let one's self go under the government of another; to yield, or surrender. “Do not submit yourself to insult.”

8. To send (across) from one to another; as, to transmit a message.

1. Pertaining to a father; fatherly; as, paternal love.

2. Patriarch. One of the fathers and rulers of a tribe or race; particularly applied to the early tribes of mankind.

3. Patronize. To act like a patron, or one who protects, fosters, or supports some enterprise, as a father looks after those under his care.

4. Patricide. The killing of a father.

5. Patriot. One who loves and supports the institutions of his country somewhat as a father cares for the interests of his family.

6. Patrimony. An inheritance from an ancestor; especially from one's father.

2. At Florence, it is said, a trader or money changer who failed in business had his banca, or money bench, broken; hence, one who is unable to pay his debts is bankrupt.

6. A rupture is a breaking apart; as the rupture of a blood vessel.

7. To break the ranks of, and throw into confusion; as to rout an enemy.

8. Route originally meant a road broken through a new and untraveled section of country. After thus broken it became a way or route for travel.

1. The appearance of a thing as viewed (looked toward or at) by the eye or mind; as, a stern aspect; the southern aspect of a house.

2. Looking around in all directions, as against danger or error. “Of all these circumstances, the slow, circumspect eye of the master took cognizance one by one.”

5. Perspective. That which is seen through an opening or vista. The effect of distance upon the appearance of objects.

9. Suspect. To underlook; to imagine or infer that appearances misrepresent; hence one who suspects is inclined to look beneath the surface.

10. Spectacle. Something exhibited to be looked at, especially if it be held worthy of unusual notice.

1. An armory is a place where arms and other instruments of war are kept.

2. A depository is a place where things are or may be put away for safe keeping.

5. A laboratory is, literally, a place for labor; particularly a place for scientific experimentation.

6. A manufactory was formerly so called because it named a place where things were made by hand. The first part of the word is now generally omitted, and appropriately so, because a small part of the work in a factory is done by hand.

10. Territory is extent of land belonging to or ruled by the government. Literally it means a place where there is land.

1. Living both on land and in water. “Seals of amphibious nature, are either for the land or water.”

2. Pertaining to, or containing water; as, an aqueous vapor.

3. A state of ill health due to a disordered condition of the liver, the gland which secretes bile.

4. Consisting of loud and repeated outcries or noise; as, a clamorous crowd.

5. The leaves of deciduous trees fall once a year.

8. Consisting of unlike elements or ingredients of different (other) kinds.

13. Having the mental faculties prematurely developed; as, a precocious child.[75]

15. Contrary to nature, reason, or common sense. Originally, preposterous meant having the after part before.

1. To twist together; to turn awry. “A form contorted and misshapen from that which nature gave.”

2. To twist aside; to twist out of shape; to wrest from the true meaning. “For gold the hireling judge distorts the laws.”

3. To wring or wrest out of or away from; to get by force or by taking unfair advantage. “'Till the injurious Romans did extort this tribute from us, we were free.”

4. To bend, twist or turn back. A retort is a short and pointed reply turned back on an assailant. A retort tube is one twisted or bent back at one end.

5. The torch is so called because the wick is twisted like a rope.

6. Torment comes from tormentum, a machine (engine) for throwing stones to inflict torture.

7. The tortoise is so called because of its twisted or crooked feet.

8. Wringing pain; anguish of body or mind. “In ancient Greece, torture was never employed except in case of treason”.[77]

1. To draw away; to consider apart. “In truth the object and sensation are the same thing and cannot be abstracted from each other.”

2. To draw to or toward. A magnet attracts iron filings.

3. To draw together or closer. Heat expands and cold contracts.

4. To draw away from. To take away a part of something, especially from one's credit. “Should I detract his worth, 'twould argue want of merit in myself.”

5. To draw apart or away. The attention is distracted when it is drawn apart from the thing in hand.

6. To draw out, to withdraw. Honey is sometimes extracted from the honeycomb and the comb replaced in the beehive.

7. To draw forward; to extend or prolong; as, “England desired not to protract the war.”

8. To draw back; to take back what has been said. When one finds he has said a hasty thing he would do well to retract it.

9. To draw back, as from an enemy. “Come, shepherd, let us make an honorable retreat.”

10. To draw away; as apart from the whole. Literally to draw away from under, or in an underhanded way, as by stealth. The word is very seldom used literally.

11. A trace is one of the tugs or straps by which a vehicle is drawn.[78]

12. A tractable child is one which can be easily led or drawn.

13. Trail means to draw along, or what is drawn.

14. A train consists of cars drawn by a locomotive.

1. A coming or arrival of any important event or personage. The advent of summer. An Adventist is one who makes the second personal coming of Christ a special feature in his doctrine.

2. An adventure is a stirring experience, come upon, as it were, suddenly and unexpectedly.

3. That which comes to a certain place. Formerly an avenue was a roadway bordered with trees which comes to a residence.

4. To come together. “The household fowls convene.”

5. To circumvent an individual is to gain an advantage over him in a secret and round about (coming around) way.

6. The outcome of an occurrence; as, “In that event all will be right.” “Marriage is the principal event for good or evil in all lives.”

7. The act of coming between persons or objects; especially interference with the acts of others.

8. To come upon; to find out or discover.

9. Revenue is that which comes back, as from an investment; income from all forms of one's property.

10. To stop or hinder from happening by means of previous measures. Originally prevent meant to come before; as in Matt. xvii:25: “When Peter was come into the house, Jesus prevented him.[79]”

1. Turned against; antagonistic. Adverse winds. “Error is adverse to human happiness.”

2. State of adverse fortune; a condition of calamity, distress, or unhappiness. “Ye have this day rejected your God, who himself saved you out of all adversities.”

3. To turn the mind or attention to; as, “I will only advert to some leading points in the argument.”—Emerson.

4. To advertise an article is to cause the public to turn attention to it.

5. A turning away from. “Adhesion to vice and aversion to goodness.”

6. To turn away or aside. “Till ardent prayer averts the public woe.”

7. Diverse ways are different ways—they turn apart.

8. The act of turning aside from a course; as the diversion of the mind from study.

9. A judgment or decree dissolving marriage, and thus turning husband and wife apart from each other.

10. To turn into another position; as, upside down, inside out, end for end, etc.

11. A perverse inclination is one thoroughly wrong or turned from the right.

12. To turn back; as to reverse an engine.

13. A transverse beam is one turned across others.[80]

14. Capable of moving or turning around; as a versatile spindle; turning with ease from one thing to another; many sided; as, a versatile writer.

15. That which is translated (or turned) from another language; as, the King James version of the Bible.

16. The highest point, peak, or summit. Literally the turning point.

17. A turning or whirling around; dizziness or giddiness.

“That old vertigo in his head
Will never leave him till he's dead.”

18. A whirlpool. (Vortex is another form of vertex.)

2. Arctic means, literally, pertaining to the northern constellations called the Great and Little Bears; hence pertaining to the north polar regions.

8. Erratic means wandering from the proper or usual course in opinion or conduct.

9. Homeric means relating to Homer, the great epic poet of ancient Greece, or to the poetry which he wrote.

10. A lunatic is one who is periodically insane, with intervals of sanity (as if affected by the moon).[81]

11. Lyric poetry is that which is adapted to the lyre or harp; fit to be sung to an accompaniment.

16. Panic means sudden or groundless fright, such as was said to have been caused by Pan, the god of pastures and forests.

1. A merchant when he advertises goods hopes thereby to cause people to turn their attention to them.

2. To criticise is to (make) pass judgment upon.

3. To familiarize means, literally, to make as one of the family, to become intimate with.

4. Ground is fertilized when it is caused to produce more abundantly.

5. Any conduct is legalized when it is made lawful.

6. We recognize a person when we know him again; as, one whom we have known before.

7. To sympathize is to feel with another.

8. Tantalize is derived from Tantalus, a Phyrgian king who, according to Greek mythology, was punished in the lower world by being placed in a lake of pure water up to his chin, while there hung over him luscious fruit, the fruit and the water receding whenever he sought to satisfy his hunger or[82] thirst. Hence tantalize means to tease or torment by presenting something desirable to the view and frustrating expectation by keeping it out of reach.

Words 9 to 24 may be defined in a simple and satisfactory manner by using some meaning of the suffix ize in the definition with the first part of the word; thus, agonize means to cause to have agony.

1. The anemometer is an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind.

2. The barometer measures the weight of the atmosphere, and thus aids in determining the indications of the weather.

3. A chronometer is an instrument for measuring time. Specifically, it is a large and very accurate watch for use in astronomical observations.

6. Geometry literally means earth measure. It treats of the measurement of surfaces, and is therefore applied in the measurement of land.

7. The hexameter in poetry is a measure having six poetic feet to the line.

8. The hydrometer is used for measuring the specific gravity of water and other liquids.

9. The lactometer is used for measuring the purity and richness of milk.

10. The metric system of weights and measures is one in which the meter is the unit of measure.

12. The perimeter is the measure around a body or figure.

14. Trigonometry treats of measurements based on the triangle (three angles).

1. The acropolis was the upper part of a Grecian city. It commanded a view of the surrounding country.

2. Named for Queen Ann.

3. A contraction of Constantinopolis. Named for Constantine.

4. Indiana means, literally, the land of the Indians. Indianapolis means city of Indiana.

5. The metropolis is the chief, or mother city, of the state or country.

6. The city of Minne (haha).

7. A police force is a body of civil officers in a city organized for its protection.

8. Politics is the science of government in state or city.

PART TWO

Letters, Sounds, Syllables, Words, Principles
of Pronunciation, and Rules of Spelling.

SEVENTH YEAR.

There are forty-four elementary sounds in the English language. As there are only twenty-six letters in the alphabet some letters represent more than one sound. Certain marks or distinguishing characters used with the letters to indicate the various sounds are called DIACRITICAL MARKS.

Phonotypy is a method of representing each of the elementary sounds by a distinct printed character or letter.

The VOCALS or TONICS are those elementary sounds made by an unmodified or uninterrupted tone of the voice; as ā, ĕ.

The SUBVOCALS or SUBTONICS are those elementary sounds made by the tone of the voice modified by the organs of speech, making an undertone; as b, d, g, r.

The ASPIRATES or ATONICS are those elementary sounds made by merely breathing modified by the organs of speech; sometimes called breath sounds; as p, t, s.[86]

I. Vocals.

II. Subvocals.

III. Aspirates.

Note.—The foregoing forty-four sounds are those most[87] employed in the English language. Some of these sounds are represented by other letters, as shown in the following:

IV.—Table of Equivalents.
[Dictionary Work—Metcalf & DeGarmo.]

Cognate sounds are such as are produced by the same organs of speech in a similar position. The cognates are in pairs, as follows: Vowels: ā ĕ, ē ĭ, â ă, ä ȧ, a̤ ŏ, û ŭ, ōō o͝o; consonants: g´ k, b p, d t, j ch, th th, v f, z s.

A LETTER is a mark or character used to represent a sound,—usually an elementary sound.

The NUMBER OF LETTERS in the different alphabets vary, as follows: English 26, Arabic 28, French 25, German 26, Greek 24, Hebrew 22, Italian 21, Russian 33, Spanish 27, Sanskrit 49. The Chinese have no alphabet, but about 20,000 syllabic characters.

There are many different STYLES OF LETTERS; as, Roman, Italic, Old English, and Script.

A VOWEL sound is a free and uninterrupted sound of the voice. The vowel sounds are formed by the voice modified, but not interrupted, by the various positions of the tongue and lips.

A CONSONANT sound is an articulate sound made by the obstructed voice, and which in utterance is usually combined with a vowel sound.

There is no absolute division between vowels and consonants. Certain vowels are so open as to be only vowels, certain consonants are so close as to be only consonants; but there are yet others which have the value now of vowels and now of consonants; as, i, u, w, and y.

“Y as a vowel is a substitute for i, and i is a consonant as a substitute for y. W and y are vowels: (1) When they end words or syllables, (2) when they are not followed by a vowel in the same syllable, (3) when they are followed by a silent vowel in the same syllable. W and y are consonants when they begin words or syllables and are immediately followed by a vowel. I is a consonant when it represents the consonant y, as in alien. U is a consonant when it represents the consonant w, as in quick, language.”—Irish's Orthography.

A DIPHTHONG is produced by running together two vowel sounds in the same syllable.

An IMPROPER DIPHTHONG or DIGRAPH is merely a collection[89] of two vowels in the same syllable, of which only one is sounded; as in rain, teach.

The diphthongs in the following words are all that are in common use, viz.: toil, toy, sound, cow, peal, oil, audible, awning, say, seine, people, feud, obey, eschew, believe, loan, hoe, hue, juice. Of these oi, oy, ou, and ow are the only proper diphthongs.

A TRIPHTHONG is produced by running together three vowel sounds in the same syllable.

A triphthong is PROPER if all three of the vowels are sounded. (But there are no proper triphthongs that I know of.)

A triphthong is IMPROPER or is called a TRIGRAPH if one or two of the three vowels is silent; as in adieu, beauty.

The mutes represent an explosive sound, and are so called because the mouth organs are closed just before the sound is uttered and the voice is momentarily mute.

The four subvocals b, d, j, g, and their cognates, p, t, ch, and k, are generally classed as mutes. Pronounce them and see if they do not represent explosive sounds.

All other consonants are semivowels, and are pronounced with a continuous sound. The sound may be continued so long as the breath lasts; but in the case of mutes the sound must stop with the explosive utterance.

II. The SUBVOCALS and ASPIRATES are shown in the vertical columns of the table below. The subvocals are sometimes called voice consonants and the aspirates breath consonants. These are fit terms, for they indicate the basis of classification.

III. Labials, LINGUA-DENTALS, and PALATALS constitute a classification of the consonants with respect to the place[90] of formation. Bead the table from left to right. The lips have most to do with making the labial sounds; the lingua-dentals are formed at the point of the tongue in contact with the teeth, the palatals between the tongue and hard and soft palate.

Consonant Table.

EIGHTH YEAR.

A SPOKEN SYLLABLE is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds, uttered together, or with a single impulse of the voice. It constitutes a word or a part of a word.

A WRITTEN or printed syllable is a part of a word separated[91] from the rest, and capable of pronunciation by a single impulse of the voice.

As to where a word shall be divided in making it into syllables depends upon the PURPOSE OF SYLLABICATION. When the purpose is to show the derivation the division is made with reference to the component parts (roots, prefixes, and suffixes); but if the purpose is to indicate correct pronunciation, the result may be very different. For illustration, the following words are divided, first, to show derivation: abs-tract, bene-vol-ent, pre-de-cess-or, e-duc-ate, phon-o-typ-y, pro-gress, e-lig-ible; and, second, to indicate correct pronunciation: ab-stract, be-nev-o-lent, pred-e-ces-sor, ed-u-cate, pho-not-y-py, prog-ress, el-i-gi-ble.

While in the illustrations here given the syllables formed for one purpose are very different from those formed for the other, yet in the majority of words the resulting syllables are the same whether divided for one purpose or for the other.

In the United States the prevailing purpose of syllabication is to indicate pronunciation.

The ULTIMATE syllable of a word is the last (ultimus = last); the PENULTIMATE is next to the last (pen = almost); the ANTEPENULTIMATE is the third from the last (literally, before almost the last); the PREANTEPENULTIMATE is the fourth from the last (literally, before the one that is before the one almost last).

In long words two, and sometimes three, syllables are accented. But one syllable is always accented more strongly than the others are. The stronger accent is called the PRIMARY accent, the weaker is called the SECONDARY. Thus, in am´ mu ni´ tion the primary accent falls on the third syllable and the secondary on the first.[92]

The “PRINCIPLES” which govern the placing of accent are complicated. The International Dictionary says there are no principles by which to determine the accent in English. Another high authority says: “All attempts to assign rules for the place of the accent in English only serve to render the subject hopelessly intricate and confounded.”

There are, however, certain tendencies which mature pupils might profitably consider, but the limited scope of this book will not permit me to attempt to set them forth.

In the words of the following list the accent changes with a change of meaning. When nouns or adjectives these words are accented on the first syllable; when verbs, on the second:

A PRIMITIVE, OR ROOT, word is one not derived from any other word of the language; as, fix, strike, man.

A DERIVATIVE is a word formed from a primitive by changing it internally, or by adding a prefix or suffix; as, men, suffix, strikers.

A COMPOUND WORD is a combination of two or more simple words; as, buck-saw, well-behaved, school-room.

A word of one syllable is a monosyllable (mono = one); of two syllables, a dissyllable (dis = two); of three syllables, a[93] trisyllable (tri = three); of three or more syllables, a polysyllable (poly = many).

The ROOT of a word is its fundamental or elementary part which carries the primitive notion or significance with it, without prefix or suffix; as, ge (earth), graph (write), vol (wish).

A PREFIX is a significant syllable joined to the beginning of a word; as, autograph, circumvent, amphitheater.

A SUFFIX is a significant syllable joined to the end of a word; as, man ly, fert ile, ment ion.

AFFIX is a general term for prefixes and suffixes; it may be applied to either or to both together.

SEVENTH YEAR.

Drop final silent e from such words as the following and note the effect on the sound of the other vowel in the same syllable: bare, pure, ripe, lame.

In the four words last given, for illustration, the pronunciation changes when the final silent e is dropped.

Another class of words ending in ce and ge retain the final silent e on adding a suffix beginning with a or o to preserve the soft sound of c and g, and with it the correct pronunciation of the word; as, serviceable, noticeable, changeable, courageous.

Illustrations: clime, climb, plumb, belle, butt, dyeing, singeing, guilt, damn.

Numerous illustrations are found in words derived from[94] the Greek. In chronic, and chronology, the h is silent, but serves to indicate that the root of those words is identical with the Greek root chron, which means time. Similarly the g in gnostic, the e in eulogy, p in pneumonia, the h in chromatic.

In honour and favour u is silent, and therefore a useless letter, so far as sound is concerned. The u signifies that the word came to us through the French, instead of directly from the Latin. The question is, whether we shall go to the trouble of writing the extra letter in a large class of such words for the sake of the historical association. Perhaps one in a thousand would choose to do so, but others of us are more intent on saving time and ink. When the spelling reform idea becomes operative with English speaking people, a great many silent letters will go the way of the u in labour, favour, and the like.

The following are some of the numerous classes of silent letters together with the principle found to be operative through them.

“C is silent before k in the same syllable. C is silent in czar, victuals, muscle, corpuscle, indict, and Connecticut.”

EIGHTH YEAR.

“Gh is always silent after i and, when not a substitute for f or k, is also silent after au and ou.”

SEVENTH YEAR.
PRINCIPLES OF PRONUNCIATION WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

EIGHTH YEAR.

“I constituting or ending an unaccented syllable, not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.”

In the initial syllables i, bi, chi, cli, cri, pri, tri, however, i is generally long.

E before terminal n should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

E should also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal en is immediately preceded by l, m, n, or r.

But in the following words and in their derivatives e before terminal l should not be sounded:

SEVENTH YEAR.
RULES OF SPELLING.

Many people think that rules of spelling are of no value, because they are hard to remember and because of numerous exceptions. This is certainly true of a great many such rules (and there are a great many); but three or four of these rules apply to so many words difficult to spell, and they have such a small number of exceptions that they are well worth while. Several hundred words are spelled according to the first rule given below. The rule itself is short, and all of the exceptions could be learned “for keeps” by a pupil in an hour. But pupils must have drill in applying the rules or they may be able to repeat the rules perfectly and glibly and not be able to spell the words coming under them.

Since the rule given for the work of the first month, seventh year, and that given for the second month, are counterparts,[100] each of the other, I prefer to take them together. Knowing that “silent final e is dropped when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added”, we naturally infer its counterpart, viz.: “Silent final e is retained when a suffix beginning with a consonant is added.”

To bring about the necessary drill and insure attention to the application of the rule, I suggest that a class of pupils, reciting by turns, spell at least twenty-five words according to the following model. [The words are on the board in this form: love + able, care + less.]

“The suffix able begins with the vowel a; therefore when it is added to the word love the final silent e is dropped, and the word is spelled lovable.” Or,

“The suffix less begins with the consonant l; therefore, when it is added to the word care the final silent e is not dropped, and the word is spelled careless.”

Words to be spelled according to this model should be mixed,—those in which the suffix to be added begins with a vowel mixed with those in which the suffix begins with a consonant. Exceptions ought to be thrown into the mixture, and when a pupil comes to an exception, he can proceed according to the model, concluding with, “but this word is an exception to the rule”.

Fifty words are here given to illustrate this rule, but pupils who want to do thorough work should spell several such fifties.

Words ending in ce and ge retain the e when a suffix beginning with a or o is added.

Five other exceptions, to be remembered together: argument, judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment.

The exceptions here given, which are practically all of the exceptions to this rule, should be reviewed until they cannot be forgotten. The value of the rule depends much on a thorough committal of the exceptions.

Rule II: “When a suffix is added to a word ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i, unless the suffix begins with i.”

Model for drill on this rule (supply + ed, display + ed are written on the board):[102]

“The y in supply is preceded by a consonant, therefore, when the suffix ed is added the y is changed to i and the word is spelled, supplied.” Or,

“The y in display is preceded by a vowel, therefore when the suffix ed is added the y is not changed, and the word is spelled, displayed.”

Rule III: “Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel.” This rule carries with it the inference that the final consonant is not doubled unless these conditions are all complied with.

“Refer is not a monosyllable, but it is accented on the last syllable; it ends in a single consonant r, preceded by a single vowel e; therefore, on adding the suffix ed, beginning with the vowel e, the final consonant r is doubled, and the word is spelled, referred.[103]”

The final consonant is not doubled when, in the derivative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive; as, re fer´, ref´er ence.

Note.—There is a large class of words ending in l, and accented on some other syllable than the last, in whose derivatives the l is doubled by many writers; but it accords more with the analogy of the language not to double the l. Such words are the following: apparel, cancel, channel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, grovel, jewel, libel, marshal, marvel, metal, model, panel,[104] peril, quarrel.

REFERENCE TABLE OF SUFFIXES.[105]

INDEX TO ROOTS.[106]

This index is to be used as a cross-reference by means of which, words in different parts of the book having a common root may be associated.

INDEX TO PREFIXES.[107]

INDEX TO SUFFIXES.

CONTENTS.[108]

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avert:	(1) a, away + vert, turn.
	(2) To turn away; to ward off.
	(3) The evils which exist are necessary to avert greater evils.

deify:	(1) dei, god + fy, to make.
	(2) To make a god of; to praise and revere as if a deity.
	(3) The people of India deify the Ganges River.

hostile:	(1) host, enemy + ile, belonging to.[8]
	(2) Belonging to or having the characteristics of an enemy.
	(3) Yon tower which rears its head so high invites the hostile winds.

portable:	(1) port, carry + able, capable of.
	(2) capable of being carried or moved from place to place; not stationary.
	(3) A portable photograph gallery stopped for three days at the cross-roads near my home.

benefactor:	(1) bene, good + fact, make, do + or, one who.
	(2) One who does good; especially one who makes a charitable donation.
	(3) “He is a true benefactor and alone worthy of honor who brings comfort where before was wretchedness, who dries the tear of sorrow.”