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Title: The Farmer's Veterinarian: A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Farm Stock

Author: Charles William Burkett

Release date: August 16, 2017 [eBook #55366]
                Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARMER'S VETERINARIAN: A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF FARM STOCK ***

  Text printed in small capitals, bold face or italics are represented
  here as ALL CAPITALS, between =equal signs= and between _underscores_,
  respectively.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.




FARM LIFE SERIES


  THE FARMER’S VETERINARIAN
  By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT

  HANDY FARM DEVICES AND HOW TO MAKE THEM
  By ROLFE COBLEIGH

  MAKING HORTICULTURE PAY
  By M. G. KAINS

  FARM CROPS
  By CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT

  PROFITABLE STOCK RAISING
  By CLARENCE A. SHAMEL

  PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION
  By M. G. KAINS

  _Other Volumes in Preparation_




[Illustration: HEALTH]




  The Farmer’s
  Veterinarian

  =A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Farm Stock:= Containing Brief
  and Popular Advice on the Nature, Cause and Treatment of Disease, the
  Common Ailments and the Care and Management of Stock when Sick

  _By_
  CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT
  _Editor of American Agriculturist_

  ILLUSTRATED

  NEW YORK
  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
  1914


  _Copyright, 1909_
  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
  NEW YORK

  PRINTED IN U. S. A.




PREFACE


A large class of people, by force of circumstances, are compelled to
treat their own animals when sick or disabled. Qualified veterinarians
are not always available; and all the ills and accidents incident to
farm animals do not require professional attendance. Furthermore, the
skilled stockman should be familiar with common diseases and the
treatment of them. He should remember, too, that the maintenance of
health and vigor in our farm stock is the direct result of well-directed
management. Too frequently this is neither understood nor admitted, and
an unreasonable lack of attention, when animals are ill or indisposed,
works out dire mischief in the presence of physical disorder and
infectious diseases. A fair acquaintance with the common ailments is
helpful to the owner and to his stock. This leads to health, to
prevention of disease, and to skill in attendance when disease is at
hand.

The volume herewith presented abounds in helpful suggestions and
valuable information for the most successful treatment of ills and
accidents and disease troubles. It is an everyday handbook of disease
and its treatment, and contains the best ideas gathered from the various
authorities and the experience of a score of practical veterinarians in
all phases of veterinary practice.

  C. W. BURKETT.

  NEW YORK, June, 1909.




Table of Contents


        Page
  INTRODUCTION
  Facing Disease on the Farm                                 1

  CHAPTER I.
  How the Animal Body is Formed                              9

  CHAPTER II.
  Some Physiology You Ought to Know                         21

  CHAPTER III.
  The Teeth as an Indication of Age                         34

  CHAPTER IV.
  Examining Animals for Soundness and Health                39

  CHAPTER V.
  Wounds and Their Treatment                                54

  CHAPTER VI.
  Making a Post-Mortem Examination                          62

  CHAPTER VII.
  Common Medicines and Their Actions                        69

  CHAPTER VIII.
  Meaning of Disease                                        82

  CHAPTER IX.
  Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease                        92

  CHAPTER X.
  Diseases of Farm Animals                                 101




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


                                                          Page
   1. Health                                      Frontispiece
   2. Common Sheep Scab                                      3
   3. Hog House and Feeding Floor                            5
   4. Poulticing the Throat                                  8
   5. How a Cell Divides                                    10
   6. Bones of Skeleton of a Horse                          16
   7. One of the Parasites of the Hog                       18
   8. Circulation and Digestion                             22
   9. Diseased Kidney                                       25
  10. Stomach of Ruminant                                   27
  11. Circulation of Blood in Body                          30
  12. Lumpy Jaw (jaw bone)                                  36
  13. Bad Attitude Due to Conformation                      41
  14. Ewe Neck                                              46
  15. Anatomy of the Foot                                   49
  16. Fractures                                             54
  17. Bandaging a Leg                                       57
  18. Rickets in Pigs                                       63
  19. Round Worms in Hog Intestines                         66
  20. Tetanus Bacilli                                       71
  21. Ready for the Drench                                  81
  22. Bacteria As Seen Under the Microscope                 85
  23. Result of Bone Spavin                                 90
  24. Feeling the Pulse                                     94
  25. How Heat Affects Growth                               96
  26. Diseases of the Horse                                102
  27. Lumpy Jaw (external view)                            105
  28. Where to Tap in Bloating                             118
  29. Bog Spavin                                           122
  30. Horse Bots in Stomach                                124
  31. Colic Pains                                          138
  32. Retention of the Urine                               141
  33. Curb                                                 145
  34. Fistulous Withers                                    156
  35. Foot Rot in Sheep                                    160
  36. Founder                                              163
  37. Bad Case of Glanders                                 170
  38. Ventral Hernia                                       180
  39. An Attack of Cholera                                 182
  40. The Result of Hog Cholera                            186
  41. Kidney Worms in the Hog                              205
  42. Liver Fluke                                          207
  43. Lockjaw                                              209
  44. Lymphangitis                                         215
  45. Natural Presentation of the Foal                     225
  46. Abnormal Presentation of the Foal                    227
  47. Quittor                                              235
  48. A Cattle Bath Tub                                    241
  49. Side Bones                                           244
  50. Splint                                               248
  51. Twisted Stomach Worms                                252
  52. Tuberculosis Germs                                   264
      Health and Disease                               Plate 1
      Making Post Mortem Examinations                  Plate 2
      A Victim of Tuberculosis                         Plate 3
      Exterior Points of the Horse; Castration         Plate 4
      Texas Fever                                      Plate 5
      A Typical Case of Foot and Mouth Disease         Plate 6




INTRODUCTION

Facing Disease on the Farm


To call a veterinarian or not--that is the question. Whether your horse
or cow is sick enough for professional attendance, or just under the
weather a little, is a problem you will always be called upon to face.
And you must meet it. It has always faced the man who raises stock, and
it is a problem that always will. Like human beings, farm stock have
their ailments and troubles; and, in most cases, a little care and
nursing are all that will be required. With these troubles all of us are
acquainted; especially those who have spent much time with the flocks
and the herds on the farm. Through experience we know that often with
every reasonable care, some animals, frequently the healthiest-looking
ones, in the field, or stable, give trouble at the most unsuspected
times. So the fault is not always with the owner.

There is no reason, however, why an effort should not be made, just as
soon as any trouble is noticed, to assist the sick animal to recover,
and help nature in every way possible to restore the invalid to its
usual normal condition. The average observing farmer, as a rule, knows
just about what the trouble is; he usually knows if treatment is beyond
him, and if not, what simple medical aid will be effective in bringing
about a recovery with greater dispatch than nature unaided will effect.

Now, of course, this means that the farmer should be acquainted with his
animals; in health and disease their actions should be familiar to him.
If he be a master of his business he naturally knows a great deal about
his farm stock. No man who grows corn or wheat ever raises either crop
extremely successfully unless he has an intimate knowledge of the soil,
the seed, the details of fertilization and culture. He has learned how
good soils look, how bad soils look; he knows if soils are healthy,
whether they are capable of producing big crops or little crops.

So with his stock. He must know, and he does know, something as to their
state of health or ill health. With steady observation his knowledge
will increase; and with experience he ought to be able to diagnose the
common ailments, and not only prescribe for their treatment, but
actually treat many of them himself. Unfortunately, many farmers pass
health along too lightly and the common disorders too seriously. This is
wrong. The man who deals with farm animals should be well acquainted
with them, just as the engineer is acquainted with his engine. If an
engine goes wrong the engineer endeavors to ascertain the trouble. If it
is beyond his experience and knowledge he turns the problem over to an
expert. It should be so with the stock raiser. So familiar should the
owner be with his animals in case of trouble he ought to know of some
helpful remedy or to know that the trouble is more serious than
ordinary, in which case the veterinarian should be called.

All of this means that the art of observing the simple functions should
be acquired at the earliest possible moment--where to find the pulse of
horse or cow, how many heart beats in a minute, how many respirations a
minute, the color of the healthy nostril, the use of the thermometer and
where to place it to get the information, the character of the eye, the
nature of the coat, the passage of dung and water, how the animal
swallows, the attitude when standing, the habit of lying down and
getting up--all of these should be as familiar to the true stockman as
the simplest details of tillage or of planting or of harvesting.

[Illustration: COMMON SHEEP SCAB

Here is an advanced case and shows how serious the trouble may become. A
very small itch mite is the cause. The mites live and multiply under the
scurf and scab of the skin.]

Moreover, the stockman should be a judge of external characters, whether
natural or temporary. He should have a knowledge of animal conformation.
If to know a good plow is desirable, then to know a good pastern or foot
is desirable. If the art of selecting wheat is a worthy acquisition,
then the art of comparing hocks of different horses is a worthy
accomplishment also. If experience tells the grower that his corn or
potatoes or cotton is strong, vigorous and healthy or just the reverse,
observation and experience ought also to tell him when his stock are in
good health or when they lack thrift or are sick and need treatment.


LEARN TO RECOGNIZE ANIMAL DISEASES

Few farmers there are, indeed, who are not acquainted with crop
diseases. Smut is readily recognized when present in the wheat or corn
or oat field; so colic, too, should be recognized when your horse is
affected by it. The peach and the apple have their common ailments; so
have the cow and pig. In either case the facts ought to be familiar. So
familiar that as soon as diagnosed and recognized prompt measures for
treatment should be followed that the cure may be effected before any
particular headway is at all made. Handled in this way, many cases that
are now passed on to the veterinarian would never develop into serious
disturbances at all.


PREVENTION BETTER THAN CURE

The old saying, “Prevention is better than cure,” is both wisdom and a
splendid platform on which to build any branch of live stock work. Every
disease is the result of some disturbance, somewhere. It may be improper
food; the stockman must know. Moldy fodder causes nervous troubles in
the horse. Cottonseed meal, if fed continuously to pigs, leads to their
death. Hence, food has much to do with health and disease. Ventilation
of the stable plays its part. Bad air leads to weakness, favors
tuberculosis, and, if not remedied, brings about loss and death. Fresh
air in abundance is better than medicine; and the careful stockman will
see that it be not denied.

Good sanitation, including cleanly quarters, wholesome water and dry
stables, has its reward in more healthy animals. When not provided, the
animals are frequently ill, or are in bad health more or less. As these
factors--proper food, good ventilation, and effective sanitation--are
introduced in stable accommodations, diseases will be lessened and stock
profits will increase.

[Illustration: HOG HOUSE AND FEEDING FLOOR

This convenient hog house is inexpensive, and the feeding floor at the
side insures cleanliness and thorough sanitary conditions. A sanitary
hog house should be one of the chief improvements of the farm.]


DISINFECT FREQUENTLY; IT NEVER HURTS AND IT MAY DO A WORLD OF GOOD

As disease is better understood it becomes more closely identified with
germs and bacteria. Hence, to lessen disease we must destroy, so far as
possible, the disease-producing germs. For this purpose nothing is
better than sunlight and disinfectants. Sunlight is itself death to all
germs; therefore, all stables, and the living quarters for farm animals,
should be light and airy, and free from damp corners and lodgment places
for dust, vermin, and bacteria. Even when animals are in good health,
disinfection is a splendid means for warding off disease. For sometimes
with the greatest care germs are admitted in some manner or form. By
constantly disinfecting, the likelihood of any encroachment by germs is
greatly lessened.

Fortunately we have disinfectants that are easily applied and easily
obtained at small cost. One of these disinfecting materials is lime,
just ordinary slaked lime, the lime that every farmer knows. While it
does not possess the disinfecting power of many other agents, it is,
nevertheless, very desirable for sprinkling about stables and for
whitewashing floors, walls, and partitions. When so used the cracks and
holes are filled and the germs destroyed. Ordinary farm stables should
be whitewashed once or twice each year, and the crumbled lime sprinkled
on the litter or open ground. It is not desirable to use lime with
bedding and manure, for the reason that it liberates the nitrogen
contained therein. Hence the bedding and manure should be removed to the
fields as frequently as possible, where it can be more helpful to the
land. Thus scattered, the sunlight and purifying effects of the soil
will soon destroy the disease bacteria, if any are present in the
manure.

Another splendid disinfectant is corrosive sublimate, mercuric chloride,
as it is often called. Use one ounce in eight gallons of water. This
makes one-tenth of one per cent solution. In preparing this
disinfectant, allow the material to stand for several hours, so as to
permit the chemical to become entirely dissolved. This solution should
be carefully guarded and protected, since it is a poison and, if drunk
by animals, is liable to cause death. If infected quarters are to be
disinfected, see that the loose dirt and litter is first removed before
applying the sublimate.

Carbolic acid is another satisfactory disinfectant. Usually a five per
cent solution is recommended. It can be easily applied to mangers,
stalls, and feed boxes. Enough should be applied so that the wood or
iron is made wet and the cracks and holes more or less filled. Chloride
of lime is a cheap and an easily prepared disinfectant. Use ten ounces
of chloride of lime to two gallons of water. This makes a four per cent
solution, and should be applied in the same way as the corrosive
sublimate.

Formalin has come into prominence very recently as a desirable
disinfectant. A five per cent solution fills the bill. Floors and cracks
should be made thoroughly wet with it. By using one or more of these
agents the living quarters of farm animals can be kept wholesome, sweet,
and free from germ diseases. In fact, the use of disinfectants is one of
the best aids of the farmer in warding off disease and in lessening its
effects when once present.


PUT SICK ANIMALS OFF BY THEMSELVES

Many diseases are introduced into a herd or flock by thoughtlessness on
the part of the owner. I have known distemper to be introduced into
stables and among horses, Texas fever and tuberculosis into herds of
cattle, and hog cholera among hogs, because diseased animals, when
purchased, were not separated off by themselves, for a short time at
least. If this were done, farmers would lessen the chance of an
introduction of disease into their healthy herds. Consequently
quarantine quarters should be provided; especially is this true if new
animals are frequently purchased and brought to the farm where many
animals are raised and handled. These quarantine quarters need not be
expensive, and they ought to be removed far enough from the farm stock
so that there may be no easy means of infection. When newly purchased
animals are placed in the quarantine quarters they should be kept there
long enough to determine if anything strange or unusual is taking place.

[Illustration: POULTICING THE THROAT

The picture shows how to apply a poultice to the throat.]




CHAPTER I

How the Animal Body is Formed


The cell is the unit of growth. It is so with all forms of life--plant
or animal, insect or bacterium. In the beginning the start is with a
single cell, an egg, if you please. After fertilization has taken place,
this single cell enlarges or grows. Many changes now occur, all rather
rapidly, until the cell walls become too small, when it breaks apart and
forms two cells just like the first used to be. This is known as cell
division. As growth increases, the number of cells increases also--until
in the end there are millions.


=Nature of the Cell.=--The cell is very small. In most cases it cannot
be seen with the naked eye. The microscope is necessary for a study of
the parts, the nature and the character of the cell.

In the first place the cell is a kind of inclosed sac, in which are
found the elements of growth and life. Surrounding the cell is a thin
wall known as the cell membrane. In plants this cell wall is composed of
cellulose, a woody substance, which is thin and tender in green and
growing plants, but hard and woody when the plant is mature.

Within the limits of the cell is the protoplasm, the chief constituent
of the cell; locked up in this protoplasm is life, the vital processes
that have to do with growth, development, individual existence.

Embedded within the protoplasm is another part known as the nucleus and
recognized under the microscope by its density. Around the nucleus is
centered the development of new cells or reproduction--for the changes
that convert the mother-cell into offspring-cells are first noted in
this place.

[Illustration: HOW A CELL DIVIDES

The simple steps in cell division are pictured here. Starting with a
single cell, growth and enlargement take place, ending finally in cell
division or the production of two individual cells.]

So much for plant cells. Is this principle different in animals? For a
long time it was thought that plants and animals were different. But
upon investigation it was discovered that animals were comprised of
cells just as plants. And not only was this discovered to be true, but
also that animal cells corresponded in all respects to plant cells.
Hence in animals are to be found cells possessing the cell walls formed
of a rather thick membrane, the granular protoplasm or yoke, and the
nucleus established in the yoke.

The ovum, known as the female egg, is composed of the parts just
described. If it is not fertilized when ripe it passes away and dies. If
fertilized in a natural way, it enlarges in size and subsequently
divides into two cells; and these, passing through similar changes,
finally give rise to the various groups of cells from which the body is
developed.


=The Animal Body a Group Collection.=--The body is, therefore, a mass of
cells; not all alike, of course, but grouped together for the purpose of
doing certain special kinds of work. In this way we have various groups,
with each group a community performing its own function. The brain forms
one community; and these cells are concerned with mind acts. The muscle
cells are busy in exerting force and action. Another group looks after
the secretions and digestive functions, while another group is concerned
solely with the function of generation and reproduction. And so it is
throughout the body.

Both individual cells and group cells are concerned with disease. One
cell may be diseased or destroyed, but the surrounding ones may go on
just the same. It is when the group is disturbed that the greatest
trouble results.


=A Word About the Cells.=--The cell always possesses its three
parts--membrane, protoplasm, and nucleus. But there is no rule as to the
size or shape. Cells may be round or oblong, any shape. Substances pass
in and out of the cell walls; and they are in motion, many of them,
especially those that line the intestines and the air passages, and the
white corpuscles of the blood. More than this, some cells, Dr.
Jekyl-like, change their appearance and shape, send out finger-like
bodies to catch enemies or food, and even travel all around in the
body, often leaving it altogether.


BODY TISSUES

The animal body contains five forms of tissues: Epithelial, in which the
cells are very compact, forming either thin or thick plates; the
connective tissue, by which many organs are supported or embedded;
muscle tissue, either smooth or striated, and in which the cells are in
fibers that contract and shorten; nerve-tissue, that has to do with
nerve and ganglion cells by which mental impulses are sent; and blood
and lymph tissue or fluid tissues.

The first group is intimately connected with the secretory organs, or
those organs which secrete certain substances essential for the proper
work of the body. Thus we have salivary glands, mucous glands, sweat
glands, and the liver and pancreas. Connective tissue includes fibrous
tissue, fatty tissue, cartilage and bone. The fibrous connective tissue
is illustrated when the skin is easily picked up in folds. Fatty tissue
occurs where large amounts of fat are deposited in the cells. Cartilage
is found where a large amount of firm support is required. With muscle
we are all familiar; it is the real lean meat of the body.


=Blood and Lymph.=--The blood is a fluid in which many cells are to be
found. The fluid is known as serum or blood-plasma and the cells as
corpuscles, and are both red and white. The red cells give the
characteristic color. When observed under a microscope, they appear as
small, round disks. They are of great importance to the body work.
Because of the coloring matter in them the oxygen of the air is
attracted when it comes in contact with the blood in the lungs. Oxygen
is in reality absorbed, and on the blood leaving the lungs it is
distributed to all parts of the body. The oxygen supply of the body is,
therefore, in the keeping of the red corpuscles.

White corpuscles have a different work; they guard the body by picking
up poison, bacteria, and other undesirable elements and cast these out
through the natural openings of the body. Compared with the red cells,
they exist in far less numbers and may wander about through all parts of
the body.

Lymph is a fluid in which a few cells, lymph corpuscles, are suspended.
These cells are very much like the colorless corpuscles of the blood,
only no red blood cells are present. But the lymph attends to its own
business; it bathes the tissues and endeavors to keep them in a healthy
condition.


=Skin and Hair.=--Without a covering the delicate muscles would be
unprotected. The skin serves in this capacity. It does still more; out
of it is exuded poisonous substances, perspiration, and, at the same
time, the skin is a sort of respiratory organ, through which much of the
carbonic acid formed in the body escapes.

The skin possesses two general layers, the cutis and sub-cutis; in the
first is contained also epidermis. Developed in the skin are the outer
coverings like hair, wool, feathers, horns, claws, and hoofs.


THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY

The framework of the body undergoes a gradual development from birth to
maturity. It represents the bony structure of the body; and on it all
other parts depend for support and protection. The brief summary of its
parts and work that follows here has been adapted from Wilcox and Smith.


=The Skeleton.=--This consists of a backbone, skull, shoulder girdle,
pelvic girdle, and two pairs of appendages. The backbone may be
conveniently divided into regions, each comprising a certain number of
vertebræ. The cervical vertebræ include those from the skull from the
first rib. In all mammals except the sloth and sea cow the number of
cervical vertebræ is seven, being long or short, according as the neck
of the animal is relatively long or short. The first and second cervical
vertebræ, known as the atlas and axis, are especially modified so as to
allow free turning movements of the head.

The next region includes the dorsal or thoracic vertebræ, which are
characterized by having ribs movably articulated with them. The number
is 13 in the cat, dog, ox, sheep, and goat; 14 in the hog; 18 or 19 in
the horse and ass, and six or seven in domestic poultry. In mammals they
are so joined together as to permit motion in several directions, but in
poultry the dorsal vertebræ are more rigidly articulated, those next to
the sacrum often being grown together with the sacrum. The spines are
high and much flattened in all ungulates, long and slender in dogs and
cats. They slope backward, forming strong points of attachment for the
back muscles. Several ribs, varying in number in different animals, meet
and become articulated with the breast bone or sternum. The sternum
consists of seven to nine articulated segments in our domestic mammals,
while in fowls the sternum is one thin high bone furnished with a keel
of varying depth. The lumbar vertebræ lie between the dorsal vertebræ
and the sacrum. The number is five in the horse, six in the hog, ox and
goat, and seven in the sheep. The sacrum is made up of a certain number
of vertebræ, which are rigidly united and serve as an articulation for
the pelvic arch. The number of sacral vertebræ is five in the ox and
horse, four in sheep and hogs, and 12 to 17 in birds. The caudal or tail
vertebræ naturally vary in number according to the length of the tail (7
to 10 in sheep, 21 in the ox, 23 in hogs, 17 in the horse, 22 in the
cat, 16 to 23 in the dog).

In ungulates the anterior ribs are scarcely curved, the chest being very
narrow in front. The number of pairs of ribs is the same as the number
of dorsal vertebræ with which they articulate.


=The Skull.=--This part of the skeleton is really composed of a number
of modified vertebræ, just how many is not determined. The difference in
the shape of the skulls of different animals is determined by the
relative size of the various bones of the skull. In hogs, for example,
the head has been much shortened as a result of breeding, thus giving
the skull of the improved breeds a very different appearance from that
of the razorback.

The shoulder girdle consists of a shoulder blade, collar bone and
coracoid on either side. The fore leg (or wing, in case of birds)
articulates with the socket formed by the junction of these three bones.
In all the ungulates the shoulder blade is high and narrow, the coracoid
is never much developed, and the collar bone is absent. In fowls all
three bones of the shoulder girdle are well developed, the collar bone
being represented by the “wish bone.”


=The Pelvic Girdle.=--This consists of three bones on either side, viz.,
ilium, ischium, and pubis. The first two are directly articulated to the
spinal column, while the pubic bones of either side unite below to
complete the arch. The three bones of each side of the pelvis are
present in all our domestic animals, including the fowls.

[Illustration: BONES OF THE SKELETON OF A HORSE

1 Face Bones, 2 Neck Bones or Cervical Vertebræ, 3 Scapula or Shoulder
Blade, 4 Humerus or Arm Bone, 5 Radius or Bone of Forearm, 6 Carpus or
Knee, 7 Shank Bone or Cannon, 8 Upper Pastern, 9 Lower Pastern,
10 Coffin Bone, 11 Ulna or Elbow, 12 Cartilages of the Rib, 13 Costæ or
Ribs, 14 Dorsal Vertebræ or Bones of Back, 15 Lumbar Vertebræ or Bones
of Loin, 16 Candal Vertebræ or Bones of Tail, 17 Haunch, 18 Femur or
Thigh Bone, 19 Stifle Joint, 20 Tibia, 21 Tarsus or Hock, 22 Metatarsal
Bones, 23 Upper Pastern Bone, 24 Lower Pastern Bone, 25 Coffin Bone.]


=Legbones of Farm Animals.=--There is one formula for the bones of the
fore and hind legs of farm animals. The first segment is a single bone,
the humerus of the fore leg, femur of the hind leg. In the next segment
there are two bones, radius and ulna in the fore leg, tibia and fibula
in the hind leg. In the dog, cat, and Belgian hare the radius and ulna
are both well developed and distinct. In ungulates the humerus is short
and stout, while the ulna is complete in the pig, rudimentary and behind
the radius in ruminants and firmly united with the radius in the horse.
Similarly with the hind leg the fibula is a complete bone in the pig,
while in the horse there is merely a rudiment of it, attached to the
tibia.


=Feet.=--The mammalian skeleton has undergone the greatest modification
in the bones of the feet. In the horse there are only six of the
original ten wrist or carpal bones, and, since there is but one of the
original five toes, the horse has also but one metacarpal or cannon
bone. Splint-like rudiments of two other metacarpal bones are to be
found at the upper end of the cannon bone, or at the “knee” joint. Below
the cannon bone, and forming the shaft of the foot, we have the small
cannon bone, coronary bone, and coffin bone--the last being within the
hoof with the navicular bone behind it. The stifle joint of the horse
corresponds to the knee of man. The “knee” of the horse’s fore leg
corresponds to the hock of the hind leg, both being at the upper end of
the cannon bone. The fetlock joint is between the large and small cannon
bones, the pastern joint between the small cannon or large pastern
bones, and the coffin joint between the coronary and coffin bones. The
horse walks upon what corresponds to the nail of the middle finger and
middle toe of man.

In pigs four digits touch the ground, the first being absent and the
third and fourth larger and in front of the second and fifth. In
ruminants the third and fourth digits reach the ground, while the second
and fifth do not. In dogs the first digit appears on the side of the
leg, not in contact with the ground.

[Illustration: ONE OF THE PARASITES OF THE HOG

The thorn-headed worm attached to the anterior part of the small
intestine often causes death. Not more than five or six are usually
found in a single animal.]

In fowls the wing, which corresponds to the fore leg of mammals, shows a
well-developed humerus, radius and ulna, while only one carpal and one
metacarpal bone remain, along which the wing feathers are attached. In
the leg the femur and tibia are strong bones, but the fibula is a mere
splint. The tarsal bones are absent, while the shank consists of a
metatarsal bone (really three bones fused together), to which the four
toes are articulated.


=The Muscular System of Farm Animals.=--The muscular system is too
elaborate, the number of muscles too great, and their modifications for
different purposes too complex for consideration in detail in the
present volume. All muscles are either striped or unstriped (as examined
under the microscope), according as they are under the immediate control
of the will or not. The heart muscle forms an exception, for it is
striped though involuntary. The essential characteristic of muscle
fibers is contractility, which they possess in high degree. The typical
striped muscles are concerned in locomotion, being attached at either
end to a bone and extending across some movable joint. The most
important unstriped muscles are found in the walls of the intestines and
blood vessels.


=The Nervous System.=--In so far as our present purposes are concerned,
the nervous system may be disposed of in a few words. The central
nervous system consists of a brain and spinal cord. The microscopic
elements of this tissue are peculiarly modified cells, consisting of a
central body, from which fibers run in two or more directions. The cell
bodies constitute the gray matter, and the fibers the white matter of
the brain and spinal cord. The gray substance is inside the spinal cord
and on the surface of the brain, constituting the cortex. The most
important parts of the brain are the cerebrum, optic lobes, cerebellum,
and medulla. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves originating in the
brain and controlling the special senses, movements of the face,
respiration, and pulse rate. From each segment of the spinal cord a pair
of spinal nerves arises, each of which possess both sensory and motor
roots. The sympathetic nervous system consists of a trunk on either
side, running from the base of the skull to the pelvis, furnished with
ganglionic enlargements and connected with the spinal nerves by small
fibers.


=The Respiratory Organs.=--These include the nose, larynx, trachea or
windpipe, and lungs. The trachea forks into bronchi and bronchioles of
smaller and smaller size, ending in the alveoli or blind sacs of the
lungs. In fowls there are numerous extensions of the respiratory system
known as air sacs, and located in the body cavity and also in the hollow
bones. The air sacs communicate with the lungs, but not with one
another.


=The Urinary Organs.=--These consist of kidneys connecting by means of
ureters with a bladder from which the urethra conducts the urine to the
outside. In the male the urethra passes through the penis and in the
female it ends just above the opening of the vagina. The kidneys are
usually inclosed in a capsule of fat. The right kidney of the horse is
heart-shaped, the left bean-shaped. Each kidney of the ox shows 15 to 20
lobes, and is oval in form. The kidneys of sheep, goats, and swine are
bean-shaped and without lobes.


=The Reproductive Apparatus.=--This consists of ovaries, oviducts,
uterus or womb, and vagina in the female; the testes, spermatic cords,
seminal vesicle and penis, together with various connecting glands,
especially prostate gland and Cowper’s gland, in the male. In fowls
there is no urinary bladder, but the ureters open into the cloaca or
posterior part of the rectum. The vagina and uterus are also wanting in
fowls, the oviducts opening directly into the rectum. The male
copulating organ is absent except in ducks, geese, swan, and the
ostrich.




CHAPTER II

Some Physiology You Ought to Know


A close relation exists between the soil, plant, and the animal. One
really cannot exist without the other to fulfill its destiny. A soil
without plant or animal growth is barren, devoid of life. The soil comes
first; the elements contained in it and the air are the basis of plant
and animal life. The body of the animal is made up of the identical
elements found in the plant, yet the growth of the plant is necessary to
furnish food for animal life. The plant takes from the soil and from the
air the simple chemical elements, and with these builds up the plant
tissue which, in its turn, is the food of the animal.

The animal cannot feed directly from the soil and air; it requires the
plant first to take the elements and to build them into tissue. From
this tissue animals get their food for maintenance and growth. Then the
animal dies; with its decay and decomposition comes change of animal
tissue, back to soil and air again; back to single simple elements, that
new plants may be grown, that new plant tissue may be made for another
generation of animal life.

Thus the plant grows out of the soil and air, and the decay of the
animal plant life furnishes food for the plant that the plant may
furnish food for the animal. Thus we see the cycle of life; from the
soil and air come the soil constituents.

[Illustration: CIRCULATION AND DIGESTION

1 Mouth, 2 Pharynx, 3 Trachea, 4 Jugular Vein, 5 Carotid Artery,
6 Œsophagus, 7 Posterior Aorta, 8 Lungs, 9 External Thoracic Artery,
10 Left Auricle, 11 Right Auricle, 12 Diaphragm, 13 Spleen, 14 Stomach,
15 Duodenum, 16 Liver, upper extremity, 17 Large Colon, 18 Left Kidney
and its Ureter, 19 Floating Colon, 20 Rectum, 21 Anus, 22 Bladder,
23 Urethra, 24 Small Intestine, 25 Cæcum, 26 Venous Supply to the Foot,
27 Posterior Tibial Artery, 28 Internal Metatarsal Vein, 29 Internal
Metatcarpal Vein, 30 Posterior Radial Artery, 31 Metacarpal Artery,
32 Vertebral Artery, 33 Superior Cervical Artery, 34 Anterior Dorsal
Artery.]


=Meaning of Plant Building.=--Before the single simple elements were
taken into the plant, they were of little value. The animal could not
use them for food, they could not be burned to furnish heat, and they
stored up no energy to carry on any of the world’s work. What a change
the plant makes of them! So used, they become the source of the animal
food, and, as food, they contain five principal groups with which the
animal is nourished. These five groups are the air, water, the protein
compounds, the nitrogen free compounds, such as starch, crude fiber,
sugar and gums, and the fat or ether extract, as it is called.


DIGESTION OF THE FOOD

Before these different constituents of the plant can be used as food for
animals, they must be prepared for absorption into the system of the
animal. This preparation takes place in the mouth, œsophagus tube, the
stomach, and the intestines, aided by the various secretions incident to
digestion and absorption. Any withholding of any essential constituent
has its result in inefficiency or illness of the animal.

Withhold ash materials, for instance, from the food, or supply an
insufficient quantity, and the fact will be evidenced by poor teeth,
deficient bone construction and poor health in general. Let the feeding
ration be short in protein, and the result will be shown in the flesh
and blood. Let the carbohydrates and fat be withheld or supplied
insufficiently, and energy will be denied and a thrifty condition will
not be possible.

The supply of these different constituents in the proper proportion
gives rise to the balanced ration; and is concerned in a treatise of
this kind only in so far as it has to do with disease or health. For,
remember this fact: live stock are closely associated with right
feeding. If foods be improperly prepared, or improperly supplied, or the
rations poorly balanced, with too much of one constituent and too little
of another, the effect will be manifest in an impoverished condition of
the system. That means either disease, or disease invited.

Not only must these facts be considered, but other matters given
recognition also. The greater part of the trouble of the stockman in the
way of animal diseases is due to some disturbance of the digestive
system, or to the water supply, or to ventilation, or to the use to
which the animal is put from day to day. Attention to the details of
digestion has its reward in thrifty, healthy stock; a lack of this
attention brings trouble and either a temporary ailment or a permanent
disease.


=Process of Mastication.=--Food is taken in the mouth, where it is
masticated by means of the teeth, lips, cheeks, and the tongue. While
the process of mastication is taking place there is being poured into
the mouth large quantities of saliva, which softens the food and starts
the process of digestion. The active principle of saliva is a soluble
ferment, called ptyalin, that converts the starch of food into sugar.
The amount of saliva that is poured into the food is very great, being
often as much as one-tenth of the weight of the animal. This ferment is
active after the teeth have been formed, which explains why it is not
advisable to feed much starchy food to children before their teeth have
begun development.

The food, after being ground and mixed with the saliva fluid, goes to
the stomach. With the horse and hog the stomach is a single sac not
capable of holding very large quantities of food; with the cow and
sheep, on the other hand, we find a large storehouse for holding food--a
storehouse that is divided into four compartments, the rumen or paunch,
reticulum, omasum, and the abomasum. The first three communicate with
the gullet by a common opening. The cud is contained in the first and
second stomachs, and, after it has been masticated a second time, it
passes to the third and fourth, and to the bowels, where the process of
digestion is continued.

[Illustration: DISEASED KIDNEY

The kidney of the hog is pictured here. As a rule it is usually
impossible to diagnose kidney troubles in hogs and similar lower
animals.]


=Gastric Juice.=--From this it will be noticed that chewing the cud is
an act in the process of digestion; it refers only to rechewing the food
so as to get it finer and better ground for digestion. While in the
stomach the saliva continues the digestion of the starchy matter and is
assisted by the gastric fluid that pours in from the lining of the
stomach, which converts the protein or albuminoids into peptones. The
fatty matter is not acted upon at this point. There are three
constituents of gastric juice, which affect the changes in the food.
These are pepsin, rennet, and acid. With rennet you are acquainted. It
is used in the kitchen, in the making of cheese, and is obtained from
the stomach of calves or other young animals. Pepsin, also obtained
directly from the stomach, is now a conspicuous preparation in medicine.
The food, after leaving the stomach, goes into the bowels and is acted
upon by secretions of the liver and pancreas or sweetbreads. It should
be noted in passing that no secretion enters the first three divisions
of the ruminant’s stomach. It is only in the fourth or true stomach that
the gastric juice is found.


=The Stomach Churn.=--While food is in the stomach it is subjected to a
constant turning movement that causes it to travel from the entrance to
the exit or intestines. When it passes into the small intestines it is
subjected to the action of bile and pancreatic juices, which have
principally to do with the breaking up of the fat compounds. Both
resemble, to a certain extent, saliva in their ability to change starch
into sugar.

The secretion of the bile comes from the liver and the pancreatic juice
from the pancreas or sweetbreads, and both are poured into the
intestines near the same point, so that they act together. The ferments
they contain act in the following ways: They change starch into sugar,
fat into fatty compounds, they curdle milk, and convert protein
compounds into soluble peptones.

The process of digestion is finally ended in the intestines, where
absorption into the system takes place. There is no opening at all from
the bowels into the body, but the digestive nutriment is picked up by
the blood when handed into the body from the intestines by means of
countless little cells called villi, that line the walls of the
intestines. These villi cells have little hair-like projections
extending into the intestines, which constantly move; these protrusions,
as they move about, catch on to the digested nutriment, draw it into
the cells themselves, where it is handed on to the blood, when it is
later on distributed to all parts of the body. You can realize that an
immense number of these absorption cells are present when the length of
the intestine is considered. In the ox the intestine is nearly 200 feet
long. After the nutriment is drawn from the food the undigested portions
are voided periodically as feces or dung.

[Illustration: STOMACH OF RUMINANT

The four main divisions of the ruminant’s stomach are pictured here. The
first three divisions are the store-houses for food until it is fully
prepared for the fourth stomach or abomasum.]


=Absorption of the Nutriment.=--Digestion, therefore, is a dissolving
process; food is admitted to the system by means of cells. You remember
that all plant food first passes into a soluble state before it can
enter the roots and be conveyed to the parts of the plants that require
additional food for growth. In the case of plants the entrance is by
means of the root hairs. In the case of the animal, entrance in the body
is by means of the villi cells that line the intestines. From this we
see that digestion is both an intricate and delicate process. Any loss
of appetite, any disturbance of the digestion work, and any irregularity
of the bowels bear decided results, one way or the other, to the rest of
the system; and any disturbance of the body at other points, although
having no direct relation to the digestion system, sooner or later
affects the digestion and in so doing causes additional trouble.

Directly affecting digestion may be improper food, either liquid or
solid; and over-exercise or not enough of it may prove troublesome, for
exercise is clearly related to digestion. When the digestion process is
disturbed, air or gas may accumulate in the stomach or bowels and give
rise to colic or hoven. A watery action of the intestines, due to
inflammation or irritation, may lead to dysentery and enteritis; or some
obstruction like a hair-ball or a clover fuzzy ball, or the knotting of
the intestines, may occur, temporarily or permanently impairing
digestion so seriously often as to cause death itself.


CIRCULATION

As water in the plant is the carrier of plant food throughout the plant,
so is blood the carrier and distributor of food in the animal. When food
is absorbed, it either passes into the lymphatic system or into the
capillaries of the blood system. If in the former, it is carried to the
thoracic duct, which extends along the spinal column and enters one of
the main blood vessels. If collected by the capillary system, it is
carried to the portable vein, thence to the liver and finally to the
heart, where it meets with the blue blood collected from all parts of
the body.

At this point, the blood contains both the nutriment and the waste
matter of the body. Before it can be sent through the body again the
waste material must be thrown out of the system by means of the lungs.
This is accomplished by the heart forcing to the lungs the impure blood
with its impurities collected from all parts of the body and also the
nutriment collected from the digestive tract.

The chief organs, therefore, of the circulatory system are the blood and
lymphatic vessels containing respectively blood and lymph. The only
difference between these two materials is in the fact that lymph is
blood without the red-blood corpuscles. The body, after all, really
depends upon this lymph for nourishment, since it wanders to all parts
of the body, surrounds all the cells in all of the tissues and in this
way carries to the cells the very kinds of food that they need.


=Lymph Passes Through Cell Walls.=--The blood vessels have no openings
into the body at all. In this respect the blood system is like the
digestive system; it is separate and distinct in itself. The blood,
however, does creep through the walls of the blood vessels. In so doing
the blood corpuscles are left behind and lymph is the result.

[Illustration: HOW THE BLOOD CIRCULATES THROUGH THE BODY]

The center of the blood system is the heart. It is the engine of the
body. Going out from it is the great aorta, which subdivides into
arteries and farther away further subdivides until there is a great
network of little arteries; these in turn become very tiny and take the
name of capillaries. Thus the red blood, by means of arteries and
capillaries, is carried to all parts of the body. This plan of
distribution would not be complete unless some way were provided for the
return of the blood to the heart and lungs for purification. And just
such an arrangement has been provided. Another kind of network collects
this scattered blood at the extremities into separate vessels, which
gradually increase in size and finally empty their possessions into the
heart. These are the veins of the body, and have to do with the impure
blood of the body.


=How the Heart Does Its Work.=--The power back of blood distribution is
the heart. It is an automatic pump, as it were, that sends blood to the
lungs and through the arteries to all parts of the body. The heart is
divided into four divisions: the left and right ventricles and the right
and left auricles. The right auricle receives the blood from the upper
half of the body through a large vein and the lower half of the body
through another large vein, and the blood from both lungs empties into
the left auricle through two left and two right pulmonary veins. The
large arteries of the heart which carry the blood from the heart to the
different organs arise from the ventricle.

The blood always flows in the same direction. It goes into the auricle
from the veins, and from this into the ventricle. It then passes into
the arteries, then to the veins and then to the capillaries.

The action of the heart is very much like a force pump; the dark blood
flows into the right auricle, which contracts; when this is done, the
blood is forced into the right ventricle; this in turn contracts and
forces the blood into the lungs, where oxygen is taken on and carbonic
acid gas and other impurities are thrown off. From the lungs the blood,
now red and pure, passes into the left auricle and thence into the left
ventricle, from which it is forced into the aorta to be distributed to
all parts of the body.

We now see the close connection existing between the digestive system
and the circulatory system. The digested food in the intestines is
gathered in by villi cells. The question can now be asked, What do these
cells do with this nutriment or digested food? They pour it into the
absorbent vessels or lymphs, as they are called; these in turn empty the
assimilated stores of food into larger and still larger vessels, which
continues until the whole of the nutritive fluid is collected into one
great duct or tube, which pours its contents into the large veins at the
base of the neck, from whence it is carried into the circulatory system,
the very basis of which is the blood.


RESPIRATION

The dark and impure blood, after returning to the heart, is sent to the
lungs. It is, when collected from the body, just before being sent to
the lungs dark, dull and loaded with worn-out matter. It must now be
sent to the lungs, where it may be spread over the delicate thin walls
of millions of vesicles, to be exposed to the air, which is inhaled by
the acts of breathing. The blood gives off the broken-down material and
carbonic acid gas very readily. It is both unpleasant and disagreeable,
and the blood cells find it very unattractive.

The cells of the blood, however, have a great attraction for oxygen,
consequently the cells absorb oxygen with greediness, so that when the
blood returns to the heart it is fresh and bright and ready to take its
journey back over the body again. This is done just about every three
minutes. This endless round continues until stopped forever by death.

The relation existing between the animal and plant functions is brought
to light in another way. When the plant was building tissue it released
oxygen and exhaled it into the air. At the same time, by means of
leaves, it gathered in the carbonic acid to use in plant building. Of
course this was got from the air. The animal in performing its functions
and in building its tissue inhales oxygen from and exhales carbonic acid
gas into the air. Thus it is that animals take up what is unnecessary to
the plant and the plant uses what is waste and poison to the animal.




CHAPTER III

The Teeth As An Indication of Age


When a colt is born the first and second temporary molars, three on each
jaw, are to be seen. These are large when compared with the size of
those that later replace them. In from five to ten days after birth the
two central incisors or nippers make their appearance. In three or four
weeks the third temporary molars appear, followed within a couple of
months by an additional incisor on each side of the first two,
both above and below. The corner incisors appear between the
ninth and twelfth months after birth. This makes the full set of
teeth--twenty-four in number.

There is now no change in number, although there is considerable change
taking place all the time; the incisor teeth, in rubbing against each
other, are more or less worn, giving rise to the expression “losing the
mark.”

The two molars present at birth remain until the animal is about three
years old, at which time they fall out of their sockets by the
protrusion of the second set, or permanent molars.

This change from temporary to permanent teeth takes place usually
without difficulty and without trouble. The permanent teeth push their
way up from below crowding those in view. While this pushing and
crowding is going on the temporary teeth are losing ground, for the
reason their roots are being absorbed, and a time comes when the cap
only is left attached to the gums. This cap drops out and the new or
permanent tooth soon is established in its place.


LOSING OF TEMPORARY TEETH

According to the observation of Mayo, the temporary incisors are
replaced by permanent teeth as follows: “The two central incisors are
shed at about two and a half years, and the permanent ones are up ‘in
wear’ at three years. The lateral incisors are shed at three and a half
and the permanent ones are up and in wear at four years. The corner
incisors are shed at four and a half and the permanent ones are up and
in wear at five.

“The molars are erupted and replaced as follows: The fourth molar on
each jaw (which is always a permanent molar) is erupted at ten to twelve
months; the fifth permanent molar at two to two and a half years, and
the sixth usually at four and a half to five. The first and second
molars, which are temporary, are shed and replaced by permanent ones at
two to three years of age. The third temporary molar is replaced by a
permanent one at three and a half years. In males, the canine or bridle
teeth are erupted at about four and a half years of age. At about five
years of age a horse is said to have a full mouth of permanent teeth.”


THE MARK IN THE TOOTH

Horsemen make use of the “mark in the tooth” for determining the age
between five and eleven. In examining teeth you observe that two bands
of enamel are to be seen; one exterior, that surrounds the tooth, the
other interior, which is termed the casing enamel. It is this latter, or
“date cavity,” that is used to tell the age.

The mark in the tooth is occasioned by the food blackening the hollow
pit. This is formed on the surface by the bending in of the enamel,
which passes over the surface of the teeth, and, by the gradual wearing
down of the enamel from friction, and the consequent disappearance of
it, the age can be determined for a period of several years.

[Illustration: LUMPY JAW

The disease is caused by the ray fungus. The result is local tumors in
the bones and other tissues.]

When a horse has attained his sixth year the mark on the central or
middle incisors or nippers of the lower jaw will be completely worn off,
leaving, however, a little difference of color in the center of the
teeth. The cement which fills the hole produced by the dipping in of the
enamel will be somewhat browner than that of the other portions of the
tooth, and will exhibit evident proofs of the edge being surrounded by
enamel.

At seven years the marks in the four middle incisors are worn out and
are speedily disappearing in the corner ones. These disappear entirely
at the age of eight; thus all marks are obliterated at this age on the
lower jaw; the surface of the teeth are level and the form of the teeth
changes to a more oval form.

The marks on the upper jaw are still present, since there has been less
friction and wear on them. At nine the marks disappear from the central
upper incisors, at ten from the adjoining two, and at eleven from the
corner teeth.

To tell the age of the horse beyond this period is difficult and
uncertain, except by those very much experienced in performing the
undertaking. The shape of the teeth, the color and the condition all
enter into the determination but there is no fast and fixed rules after
the marks have disappeared.


TEETH OF CATTLE

Cattle have no incisor teeth on the upper jaw. They have eight incisors
on the lower jaw. According to Mayo, the temporary incisors are as
follows: “The central incisors or nippers are up at birth, the internal
lateral at one week old, the external lateral at two weeks, and the
corner incisors at three weeks old. They are replaced by permanent
incisors approximately as follows, though they vary much more than in
the colt: The central incisors are replaced at 12 to 18 months; the
internal laterals at about two and a half years; the external laterals
at three to three and a half years; and the corner incisors at about
three and a half years. In the horned cattle, a ring makes its
appearance at three years of age, and a new ring is added annually
thereafter.”


TEETH OF SHEEP

Sheep, like cattle, have no incisor teeth on the upper jaw. Like cattle,
they have eight incisors on the lower jaw when the mouth has reached
full age. The change of the teeth occurs as follows: At birth the lamb
has two incisors, followed by two more very soon. At the end of two
weeks two more are out, making six incisors in all. At three weeks of
age two more have appeared, completing the appearance of the temporary
or milk teeth.

The permanent begin to replace the temporary teeth between one and one
and a half years. The two central milk teeth are first replaced by two
longer and stronger teeth. The lamb is now known as a yearling.

At two years the two teeth adjoining the central incisors are replaced
by permanent ones; at three the two adjoining these are replaced, making
now six permanent incisors.

Between four and four and a half the last two permanent incisors appear
and the sheep then has a full mouth.




CHAPTER IV

Examining Animals for Soundness and Health


In purchasing farm stock, it is a good plan to deal with reputable
people only. Leave the horse trader alone. He knows too many tricks, and
if you are a stranger to him you can be pretty certain that he will try
one on you--just for fun.

Fortunately farmers sell to strangers more frequently than they buy of
them, and when they seek new stock they deal largely with breeders, who,
like themselves, are farmers and not given to the tricks of low and
disreputable methods; nevertheless, every purchaser of stock should be
familiar with animal form and able to recognize defects and faults when
he sees them. This is as much his business as to breed, raise or feed
the stock on his farm.


LOOKING THE ANIMAL OVER

Know what form you want; draft and speed represent different types, so
do dairy and beef. With all classes of farm stock there are a few points
that are desirable in all stock. One of these is width between the eyes.
No animal of any breed or class possessed of a narrow forehead is at all
perfect. A wide forehead is one of the absolute beauties.

These are desirable characters of all farm animals; they represent
culture and refinement and good breeding. The purchaser or breeder,
therefore, should not only know conformation, but he should know
quality.


SPECIAL TYPE IN HORSES

Our breeds of horses may be divided into three general classes. Those
used for speed, those for draft and those with a mixture of the two--a
general purpose sort of horse. The speed or trotting horse has its
distinct type; it has been evolving and developing through a long series
of years.

Briefly, its conformation may be described as follows: A wide forehead,
fairly long head, a long neck that is thin and agile, a narrow chest as
you look at it from the front, but very deep as you look from the side,
long sloping shoulders, rather long back, a long horizontal croup, small
barrel, fairly long forearm, long cannon bones and feet that are well
shaped and perfect in every respect. Looking at the animal from the side
it should be as high over the hips or higher than over the withers.

The draft horse, on the other hand, has a different conformation. There
is not that elongation of his parts, although there is a symmetry of
parts and of proportion. There should be the width between the eyes; the
clean, neat face; a graceful neck, which should be shorter and more
heavily muscled than that of the speed horse. The chest should be wide,
both from the front and side, the back short but heavily muscled, the
croup strong and not so horizontal as with the speed type, the quarters
heavily muscled and the cannon bone short.

The feet should be as perfect as those of the speed horse. In both types
the knee should be thick, deep, and broad and the hocks wide. The narrow
hock is not so well able to stand heavy strain, consequently curb
diseases readily follow where the conformation shows narrow hocks.
Another difference between the two types is found in the muscles. The
speed type throughout has long, thin, narrow muscles--muscles that
stretch a long way and contract quickly.

[Illustration: BAD ATTITUDES DUE TO CONFORMATION

In the first, the toes are turned out. The middle picture shows in-kneed
attitude and the third shows in-turned toes. Whether standing or
traveling, the appearance is unpleasant and mitigates against the value
of the animals.]

With the draft horse it is different: the muscles are shorter, but they
are heavy; they are less quick in their action, but they are more
powerful. In both types good proportions are always desirable. The width
between the eyes should be as much or more than one-third the length of
the head. The distance from the point over the shoulders to the ground
should be about equal to the distance from the point over the hips to
the ground; and in turn this distance, whatever it is, should be about
equal to the length of the horse from the point of the shoulder to the
point of the buttock.

Looking at the horse in front if a line be dropped from the point of the
shoulder it should halve the fore leg, the knee, the cannon, and the
hoof. And the width of the third hoof, if placed between the two front
feet, should give the attitude that is desirable.

Looking at the horse from the rear, the same attitude is to be observed.
Of course, many horses do not possess these qualities and proportions;
and because they do not is the very reason that their beauty,
efficiency, and value are less.


EXAMINING ANIMALS IN THE STABLE

In going into the stable look the animals over quietly. Observe how they
stand, breathe, eat, and act generally. Are they nervous? Does one swing
his head from side to side? Does he kick, paw, put back his ears, or
does he have any of the other common stable vices that are unpleasant
and undesirable? As you look about and pass back and forth, you will get
the evidence of these stable vices, if such are to be found.

Look particularly for cribbing, wind sucking, kicking and crowding.
Pawing is just as bad. If you want animals with good stable manners pass
by those possessing these ugly faults. The next step is to examine the
animals individually; those that “look good” to you. No doubt you will
find some that do not interest you for one reason or another. These need
no further attention, unless you have overlooked some fact, in which
case your attention will likely be called to it.

In making the individual examination, go up to the animal in the stall,
place your hand on the hip, and gently press it. If no stringhalt
afflicts the horse, he will move over, allowing you to pass into the
stall. The same applies to the cow. If well trained, she will make room
for you by moving over at the same time, if you do this on the proper
side, and she will put back her hind foot, as if she were about to be
milked.

This casual observation would not be possible if force were used or the
animal excited by loud commands or by a whip or strap. The halter
teaches its lesson also. A heavy rope or leather suggests that the
animal has a pulling back vice, a habit you want to avoid. Light halters
for horses and cattle are to be preferred to chains, heavy leather, or
ropes.


REAL TEST IS OUT OF DOORS

Now that you have seen all of the animals for sale, ask the owner to
lead them out of doors for a more careful examination. In this you will
inspect the animal very carefully in order to be certain of the
conformation, defects, and blemishes, and to acquaint yourself
specifically as to health and disposition.

Cast your eyes over the animal, front, side, and rear. Pass around the
animal, keeping some distance away. By so doing you can judge of type
and conformation, of proportions and attitudes; for each of these is
important. A beefy-looking cow, with a thick neck, square body and small
udder will not suit you for milk. Neither will a cow with a long, thin
neck, open, angular body, thin thighs, and heavy, deep paunch meet your
needs if you are seeking breeding stock for beef production.

If you are examining a horse, keep in mind the purpose for which you are
selecting. Remember the long, thin neck, very oblique shoulder, long
cannon, long back, and long thin muscles are not adequate for draft. On
the other hand, if you want a horse for road purposes, avoid the heavy
muscles, the short neck, the heavy croup, and the heavy thighs. These
mean draft--an animal for heavy work.


SPECIAL TYPE IN CATTLE

The milk cow should have a very soft, mellow skin, and fine, silky hair.
The head should be narrow and long, with great width between the eyes.
This last-mentioned characteristic is an indication of great nervous
force, an important quality for the heavy milker. The neck of the good
dairy cow is long and thin, the shoulders thin and lithe and narrow at
the top. The back is open, thin, and tapering toward the tail. The hips
are wide apart and covered with little meat.

The good cow is also thin in the regions of the thigh and flank, but
very deep through the stomach girth, made so by long open ribs. The
udder is large, attached well forward on the abdomen, and high behind.
It should be full, but not fleshy. The lacteal or milk veins ought also
to be large and extend considerably toward the front legs.

The beef cow is altogether different: she is square in shape, full and
broad over the back and loins, and possesses depth and quality,
especially in these regions. The hips are even with flesh, the legs full
and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The neck is
full and short, the eyes bright, the face short, the bones of fine
texture, the skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow, elastic, and
rich in quality.

In other words, a beef cow is square and blocky, while the dairy cow is
wedge-shaped and angular. The one stores nutriment in her body; the
other gives it off. The one is a miser, and stores all that she gets
into her system; the other is a philanthropist and gives away all that
comes into her possession.

It will be seen, therefore, that the two types are radically different.
This difference is due to breeding, not to feeding, nor to management.
If you are seeking good milk cows, you must look for form and
conformation. If you are looking for beef cows, you must also look for
form and conformation, but of a different kind. With this knowledge to
back you up and to guide you, you are now ready to make an examination
of animals that will meet your purpose.


GOING OVER THE ANIMAL IN DETAIL

After making these general observations you are now ready to examine the
animal. Begin with the head. How is the eye? Dull, weak, without
animation? If so, be on your guard. The good eye shows brightness,
intelligence, and it must be free from specks. By placing the hand over
the eye for a few moments you will be able to detect its sensitiveness
to light. Do you find any discharge of any kind from the eye? If so,
some inflammation is present. Try to ascertain the cause.


=The Nostril As An Index.=--A large, open nostril is desirable. Look for
that character first. Now observe the color of the lining. To be just
right, it should be healthy-looking, of a bright rose-pink color, and it
should be moist. A healthy nostril is one free from sores, ulcers,
pimples, and any unpleasant odor. Be careful here; an unscrupulous
dealer can very easily remove discharges and odors by sponging and
washing, and you may be deceived.

[Illustration: EWE NECK

The neck is one of the beauty points of the horse. In purchasing animals
look carefully to conformation and quality. Let these also be guiding
principles in breeding.]


=Looking In the Mouth.=--Always look in the mouth; you have the tongue,
teeth, jaws, and glands to see. Naturally, you, like every other person,
consider the teeth first; you want to be certain of the age. This
feature is discussed elsewhere in this book, and all in addition that
needs to be said is in reference to the shape of the teeth, whether or
not they are diseased or worn away by age or by constant cribbing of the
manger. Of course these facts you will think of as you examine the
mouth.

Give the tongue a second of your time. If it is scarred and shows rough
treatment a harsh bit is likely the cause, due to its need in driving
and handling.

Then give a thought to the glands while here. Enlarged glands may
indicate some scrofulous or glanderous condition of the system.


=Neck and Throat.=--A beautiful neck and throat is an absolute beauty in
the horse or cow. The skin should be thin, mellow, and soft, and the
hair not over thick nor coarse. Look for poll-evil at the top of the
neck and head. See if swellings, lumps or hard places are to be found at
the sides of the neck, or underneath joining the throat. I have found
such very frequent with dairy cattle; and cases are not unusual with
horses.

Frequently scars are to be found on the sides or bottom of the neck.
These may be due to scratches caused by nails, barb-wire or some similar
accident, and again they may have been caused by sores, tumors, or other
bad quality of the blood.


=Body and Back.=--Passing the side, look over the withers for galls or
fistulæ, the shoulders for tumors, collar puffs, and swellings. Observe
at the same time if there is any wasting of the muscles on the outside
along the shoulder.

Now the back. Is it right as to shape? Do you find any evidence of sores
or tumors? Look for these along the sides and belly. Now stoop a bit and
look under; do you find anything different from what is natural? In
males look for tumor or disease of the penis; do the same with the
scrotum, and, in case of geldings scrutinize carefully to see if they
be ridgelings.

While making this examination, if the animal is nervous and fretful, you
can help matters along if an assistant holds up a fore leg. Take the
same precaution when examining the hind quarters and legs. By doing so,
you will avoid being kicked and can run over the parts more quickly and
satisfactorily.

Before leaving the body observe if the hips are equally developed, and
the animal evenly balanced in this region. Both horses and cattle are
liable to hip injury, one of the hips being frequently knocked down.
Make sure that both are sound and natural.


=Fore Legs and Front Feet.=--Now step to the front again for a careful
examination of the front legs and feet. Starting with the elbow, examine
for capped elbow; now the knee. It should be wide, long, and deep, and
at the same time free from any bony enlargements. The knees must stand
strong, too. Is the leg straight? Do you observe any tendency of the
knee to lean forward out of line, showing or indicating a “knee sprung”
condition? Just below the knee, do you find any cuts or bunches or scars
due to interference of the other foot in travel? Look here also for
splints; follow along with the fingers to see if splints are present--on
the inside of the leg.

Be particular about the cannon. The front should be smooth--you want no
bunches or scars. Just above the fetlock feel for wind puffs; and note
if about the fetlock and pastern joints there are any indications of
either ringbones, bunches, or puffs. Now look for side bones; if
present, you will find them just at the top of the hoof. They may be on
either side. Sidebones are objectionable, and are the lateral
cartilages changed into a bony structure.

Give the foot considerable attention. The old law of the ancients, “no
feet, no horse,” is certainly true in our day. You can overlook many
other imperfections and troubles in the horse, but if the feet are bad
you do not have much of a horse. A good foot is well shaped, with a
healthy-looking hoof and no indication of disease either now or ever
before.

See that the shape is agreeable. A concave wall is not to be desired,
and the heels are not to be contracted. The wall should be perfect--no
sand cracks, quarter crack, or softening of the wall at the toe of the
foot.


=Examine for Corns.=--These are both troublesome and cause much
lameness. A healthy frog, uninjured by the knife or the blacksmith or
other cause is very much to be preferred.

[Illustration: ANATOMY OF THE FOOT

The delicate nature of the foot is readily recognized when the various
parts are considered in their relation to each other.]


=Hind Legs and Feet.=--In examining these regions give the hocks of the
horse special attention. No defect is more serious than bone spavin. You
can, as a rule, detect this by standing in front of the horse just a
little to the side. If there is any question about the matter, step
around to the other side and view the opposite leg. This comparison will
let you out of the difficulty, as it is very unusual that this defect
should be upon both legs at the same point and developed to the same
degree.

A spavin is undesirable for the reason that it often produces serious
lameness, which frequently is permanent. As it is a bone enlargement, it
is something that cannot be remedied. If you are seeking good horses,
better reject such as have any spavin defect.

In this same region between the hock and the fetlock curbs troubles are
located. They appear at the lower part of the hock, directly behind. You
can readily detect any enlargement if you will step back five or six
feet. The curb, while it may not produce lameness, is altogether
undesirable. It looks bad; it shows a weakness in the hock region and
often is caused by overwork, consequently the animal with curb disease
is one that has not measured up to the work demanded of him.

Just above and to the rear of the hock the thorough-pin disease appears,
and just in front of and slightly toward the inner side of the hock bog
spavin is sometimes to be found. Lameness may come from either of these
diseases. Small tumors, puffs and other defects frequently show
themselves on the hind legs and the best way is to reject animals having
them. While some of these may be caused by accident, the most of them
are the result of bad conformation, due to heredity, unimproved blood
and bad ancestors.


EXAMINING FOR LAMENESS

Lameness comes from many causes; maybe from soreness, from disease or
from wounds. And lameness is hard to detect. Frequently it seems to be
in the shoulder, when in fact it is a puncture in the foot. Again it may
seem to be in the fetlock, but the trouble is in the shoulder or fore
leg. You must examine for lameness both in the stable and out of the
stable. If you find the horse standing squarely upon three feet and
resting the fourth foot, you should be suspicious. If you move the horse
about and he assumes the same attitude again and still again, you can be
certain that he is assuming that position because he wants to rest some
part of that member.

In testing out the horse for lameness, let no excitement prevail. Under
such excitement the horse forgets his lameness or soreness for the time
being, and you do not note the trouble. A quiet, slow walk or trot on as
hard a road as possible is a desirable sort of examination to give.


TESTING THE WIND

The free breathing of a horse may be interfered with, and for two
reasons. Roaring or whistling, as it is called, is a serious disease of
the throat, and, at the same time, an incurable disease. The second
disease is known as heaves or bellows, and is also a most serious
disease, because it is also incurable. By the use of drugs relief may be
given temporarily, but no permanent cure follows. Unscrupulous dealers
will resort to dosing for the time being, or until a sale is made.

You should guard against this trouble, however, for it is one of the
most serious that a horse can have. Upon this subject, Butler has the
following to say: “To test the wind and look for two serious conditions
and others which may be present, the animal should be made to run at
the top of his speed for some considerable distance--a couple hundred
yards or more. Practically this run or gallop should be up hill, which
will make the test all the better. After giving the horse this gallop,
stop him suddenly, step closely up to him and listen to any unusual
noise, indicating obstruction of the air passages, and also observe the
movements of the flanks for any evidence of the big double jerky
expulsion of the air from the lungs characteristic of heavers.”


TESTING OF THE PACES

No examination is complete that does not make a test of the paces. You
want to know how fast the horse can walk, how he trots or paces or how
he takes some other gait. Some horses make these movements very
gracefully; others very unmannerly. A well-acting horse is one that
moves smoothly, regularly, who picks up his feet actively and who places
them firmly in their position regardless of the ground or gait. Some
horses have a rolling movement of the legs. Avoid these. Others step on
the toe or heel. These, too, should be avoided. They suggest some defect
or bad conformation.

The testing of the paces brings all parts of the body into play and
assists in catching other blemishes or defects that you may have
overlooked in your previous examination. It gives you another
opportunity to examine the wind, to observe the respiration, the heart
beatings, the condition of the nostril after work; it shows you also how
the animal takes his pace and how he stands. All of this will be of
value as indicating the soundness and health of the individual under
observation.


CONSIDERING FOR A SPECIAL PURPOSE

Now, as a last factor of your examination, consider the uses to which
the animal is put. If you are looking for breeding animals be sure to
know that the udder is not injured. Of what use is a cow with a bad
udder? How often do we find a quarter of the udder destroyed or a teat
cut or so badly mangled as to be of little use! Some udders are dead,
heavy, fleshy; some are diseased, lumpy; and even though the animal is
otherwise good you must reject her.

If the udder is good, superior in many respects, and shows great milk
production, you can often afford to overlook other defects, especially
if the result of accident.

In the case of horses, a disease or blemish due to accident may be
overlooked, if the work to which the animal will be subjected does not
interfere, let us say, for breeding purposes. The horse has good
conformation, good quality, is healthy and very superior, but
unfortunately a leg was broken. Shall she be rejected as a breeder? No
heavy work will be required of her--she is wanted for colt raising. Take
her; of course you will pay less for her. This accident interferes in no
way with her value for breeding purposes. Many cases of accidental
injuries are similar to this example among cattle and horses.

A good rule is to reject those having defects or blemishes that
interfere with functional activity or the work to which you wish to put
them. Then, as breeders, reject all with constitutional defects, as bad
feet, narrow hocks, coarse disease-appearing bones, and bad conformation
and scrubby character.




CHAPTER V

Wounds and Their Treatment


[Illustration: FRACTURES

When a bone is broken into two or more parts it is said to be fractured.
These may be straight across, up and down, or oblique. Ordinary
fractures are easily treated by splints, but sometimes fractures are so
serious as to destroy the value of the animal.]

The stockman has all sorts of wounds with which to deal. He may guard
his animals with the care and caution of a mother and still find
constant bother and worry to face in the daily management of his stock.
Today it may be a wound caused by a nail puncture in the foot; tomorrow
a cut occasioned by a fence; and then almost immediately another, the
result of a kick or a hook; with patience nearly exhausted, now follow
bruises of many sorts and unexplainable lacerations.

These troubles occur on the best managed farms. There is but one thing
to do: meet each case as it occurs and lend such assistance as you can
that nature may repair the wrecked tissue at the earliest possible
moment.


THE KINDS OF WOUNDS

Wounds fall into four classes: the clean-cut kind made by something
sharp; the torn or lacerated, where ragged edges are left; the bruised,
the result of continued pressure or kicks or a knock; and the punctured,
like the entrance of a nail or splinter or gunshot.

The latter class is the most difficult in treating, for the reason of
the greater penetration that may likely occur. In the case of gunshot,
the wound may be on the surface, or it may extend entirely through the
region attacked, or even penetrate some vital organ like the heart or
the lungs or bowels, and either immediately or within a few days be the
cause of death. Fortunately such wounds are rare. The stockman may never
have to deal with them at all. There are punctured wounds that are
common, however; some, indeed, frequently lead to death. A nail wound is
the most serious, perhaps. It is likely that more cases of tetanus or
lockjaw are due to nail punctures than to all others combined.

After this class comes the lacerated kind. These heal slowly; the tissue
being torn and bruised is repaired only through the sloughing off of the
injured and now superfluous parts. As a result, even with the most
attentive surgical help, the injured part develops its exposed sore,
ending finally completely healed, but permanently marked. Bruises may be
equally bad, long delayed in healing and very painful. Do you remember
the stone bruises of boyhood days? How long it required to develop! And
the pain! I shall feel mine for ages to come.

The clean-cut wounds, if not too serious, are the least difficult in
treating.


FIRST STEP IN TREATING

The flow of blood is usually associated with ordinary wounds; other than
with some bruised and punctured wounds this is always true. Frequently a
nail puncture gives off no blood or it is not noticed. However, the
blood is present, for, from the very nature of the trouble, blood rushes
to the seat, this being nature’s way of repair. Your first step,
therefore, is to check the excessive blood flow.

[Illustration: BANDAGING A LEG

The method of applying the bandage is shown here. The bandage may be
wrapped directly over the hair or over cotton saturated with an
antiseptic and placed over the wound.]

If left to itself the blood might do it. Blood has the trick of
coagulating or clotting; and this in time will check the flow. But you
can assist in forming the clot very simply by applying some finely
ground material that the blood may be held on the spot. Absorbent cotton
is the best material to use. In case this is not available, use
something of like nature--something that is clean, not stored up with
germs. Tea is good, as is flour also. Cold water acts favorably, and for
the slight, ordinary surface wounds water is usually sufficient. A few
drops of some antiseptic in the water, if available, is always
advisable, for the freshest water carries its full quota of germs, some
of which may cause trouble. A tiny bit of alum powder will be found both
effective and not painful.


=Cleansing the Wound.=--After the flow of blood has been stopped,
cleansing the wound is next in order. All dirt should be carefully
removed, the injured flesh cleansed, the torn tissues brought together
and stitched, if need be, and antiseptics applied. The water used in
bathing the wounded flesh should contain an antiseptic, that the germs
present may be destroyed and no live ones admitted by water in cleansing
the wound. Any good commercial antiseptic will do; or the old common
ones, like corrosive sublimate, one part in a thousand parts of water,
or carbolic acid, a teaspoonful in a quart of water. Some powdered
antiseptic like iodoform is very desirable for dusting into the wound.


=Making the Bandage.=--Unless the wound is of little consequence it
should be covered and bandaged that no foreign elements be admitted and
that some pressure may be given to keep the broken parts together. To
secure this effect absorbent cotton, slightly moistened with the
antiseptic, should be laid on the wound, and firmly fastened by strips
of clean cotton cloth.

By winding this bandage around and about the wound, dressed in this
careful way, the wound will be protected, germs will be kept out and
nature, thus reinforced, will be enabled to make a rapid recovery.
Unless the bandage is disturbed in some way there is no need of changing
it under twenty-four or thirty-six hours. If, for any reason, the
bandage is displaced, dress as before, and bandage again.


=Special Treatment.=--When a cut wound is deep or large, stitching is
sometimes required, that the broken parts may be brought together for
more rapid healing. Nothing is better for this than a coarse needle and
heavy thread. Before stitching, however, the wound should be bathed as
previously described. The needle and thread should be soaked in the
antiseptic, that no germs may be introduced by means of them.

Now you are ready to make the stitches. Place the needle about an eighth
to a quarter of an inch from the edge of the wound across to the
opposite side. Bring the two ends together and tie, leaving the lips of
the wound as close together as possible. If more than a single stitch is
necessary, proceed in the same way, placing the second stitch about
three-quarters of an inch from the first one; continue as with the first
stitch if more are necessary.

In case a needle and thread are not available, pins may be used in the
emergency. Insert the pin through the two edges and bring the lips
together, making them fast by a thread or cord carried from one end to
the other several times, alternating to the right and left as presented
by the figure eight. Sometimes the wound enlarges and becomes feverish.
If such becomes very severe, remove the fastenings and bathe the wound
very gently, using a mild antiseptic wash of tepid water in which
carbolic acid has been placed.

[Illustration: HEALTH AND DISEASE

In the upper picture the pigs are treating themselves. Below are shown
hogs which died during shipment to market.]

Avoid any breaking of the healing tissue and do not have the washing
solution too strong, else it may injure the delicate tissue growth. A
teaspoonful of carbolic acid to a quart of water is strong enough. With
lacerated wounds the treatment is very similar. If the wound goes bad
and becomes spongy add a tablespoonful of acetate of lead and a
tablespoonful of sulphate of zinc to the antiseptic solution and apply
twice daily.

[Illustration: MAKING POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS

The upper right hand picture shows the intestines of a healthy sheep. On
the left nodule disease is discovered. The bottom picture illustrates
how a carcass may be opened for the examination.]


=Nail Punctures.=--These very frequently cause trouble. You have no way
of observing the wound and your only way of judging is from the way the
animal walks or acts, and if the hoof is unduly hot. Locating lameness
in the stifle joint is a common but inexcusable error, as the action
resulting from lameness in the two parts is entirely different. The
so-called gravel which is said to enter the sole of the foot and then to
work out at the heel is usually the working out of the pus or the matter
resulting from a nail puncture or a bruise.

If an animal becomes suddenly and severely lame and there be no evidence
of any injury to any other part of the leg, such as swelling, heat and
pain upon pressure, it is always well to look for puncture in the foot.
If the animal stands with the lame foot extended and when walking places
the lame foot well forward and brings the well foot up to it, the
evidence of puncture is still stronger.

To examine the foot properly the shoe should be removed. It is not
sufficient to merely scrape the bottom of the foot clean, for if the
nail has pulled out and the horn sprung back in position, all trace of
its entrance may have been obliterated. To examine the foot properly,
tap the hoof with a hammer or knife and the exact spot may be definitely
located. If the injury is of a few days’ standing, additional heat in
the hoof and, perhaps, slight swelling of the coronet may also be
present.

In treating such wounds, pare away only such parts of the hoof as
necessity requires and introduce a bit of cotton cloth rolled as a
string by means of a probe of some kind. Both probe and cotton must be
treated with the antiseptic solution. This solution should be a little
stronger than for flesh wounds. Make the solution by using a teaspoonful
of carbolic acid to only a pint of water. After the cotton has been
inserted a few times and withdrawn, each time a fresh cord being used
and fully saturated, leave the last one in for a few hours and then
repeat the treatment. This should be done three or four times each day.

The main point in the treatment of nail puncture of the foot is to
provide free exit to all matter that may collect and keep the parts as
clean as possible. If this be done, the matter will not be compelled to
work out at the heels, and no separation or loss of hoof will occur.
Often a very severe wound is made and the treatment acts slowly.

In case proud flesh accumulates, it should be burned away by a hot iron.
After this operation has been performed, the cavity should be filled
with balsam of fir and cotton placed over it, a piece of heavy leather
fitted to the foot and held fast by the replaced shoe. This will usually
end the difficulty. A veterinarian should be called in case the wound is
severe or goes bad as the treatment progresses.


=Treating Bruises.=--In treating bruises a different procedure is
necessary. The broken tissue is concealed--beneath the skin and usually
under the surface muscles. Bathing with water and acetate of lead--a
quart of water and two tablespoonfuls of the acetate--will tend to
lessen the inflammation. In time you may have to open the swelling for
the pus to get out. After doing so, inject some wash for cleansing,
using one quart of water and a tablespoonful of chloride of zinc.

If the swelling remains, apply twice each month a salve made by using
one teaspoonful of biniodide of mercury and three tablespoonfuls of
lard. Wash occasionally, using the chloride of zinc solution.


=Leg Wounds.=--Cleanse the wound with a wash composed of one
tablespoonful of acetate of lead, one tablespoonful of sulphate of zinc,
four tablespoonfuls of tincture of arnica and one quart of water. Use
this wash frequently, every hour or so, during the first day. After that
three or four applications will be sufficient. The sore should be kept
lower than the skin during the healing process. If it tends to crowd up,
apply a tiny bit--as much as you can place on a one-cent piece--of
bichloride of mercury. This will assist in getting an even heal and the
skin will grow over, leaving no blemish or swelling.


=Maggots in Wounds.=--If the wound has been treated as suggested above
there is no possibility of any trouble from maggots. These come from a
lack of cleanliness and neglect. Of course, an animal often gets a wound
and the owner is not aware of the mishap. Wounds, more or less
infrequently treated, those made as the result of castration,
occasionally get infected with maggots.

When, for any cause, maggots are present, they must be got rid of at
once. A good plan is to use chloroform, either by spraying or by
throwing it in the wound in small drops from a sponge.

The danger from maggots can usually be avoided if a mixture composed of
one tablespoonful of turpentine, three tablespoonfuls of tar and two
tablespoonfuls of lard or fish oil be smeared all around the border of
the wound.




CHAPTER VI

Making a Post Mortem Examination


Even on the best-managed stock farms some animals do get sick and die.
Good care and good nursing may be given, but the sick animal frequently
does not recover--death often follows very quickly, before you have an
opportunity to observe the development of the disease or to secure the
services of a veterinarian. Then, again, after a lingering sickness an
animal dies, the disease being known or unknown as the case may be.

In any event, a post-mortem examination is usually desirable, if for no
other reason than that it serves to familiarize you with the organs of
the body. With a little experience you can become quite proficient in
examining a dead animal, and you can soon learn the difference between
healthy and unhealthy organs, between diseased and normal tissues and
the relation of the internal parts to the whole body. A post-mortem
examination thus enables you to know the cause of the disease--where it
is located or whether death is the result of accident or of some fatal
disturbance of the system.

This examination should be made as soon after death as possible; the
longer the delay the greater the changes due to decomposition of the
body and its decay back to the original elements from which it has come.
Soon after death the stiffening process takes place. This is known as
rigor mortis. It may occur within an hour after death and again it may
not be complete until twenty-five or thirty hours have passed. Soon
after the death stiffening has occurred the tissues soften and
decomposition rapidly follows.


FIRST THINGS TO DO

In making a post-mortem examination, in case the animal has not been
moved, the position of the body is to be observed. Look all about you.
Is there any evidence of a struggle? Does either the body or the ground
appear as if spasms have taken place? It may be a case of poisoning. If
such be true, the outward appearance may be further substantiated by the
internal condition. If inflammation and irritation of the stomach and
bowels are observed, this evidence helps to confirm the first
observation.

[Illustration: RICKETS IN PIGS

Rickets in pigs is due, as in man and other animals, to an improper
development of the bone, the result of insufficient mineral matter in
the food. The bones are weak and bend or break. It frequently appears
after the pigs are weaned. An abundant supply of wood ashes, charcoal,
lime and salt is always good for hogs.]

The appearance of the struggle, however, is not enough to establish a
case of poisoning; for struggling is a death characteristic of many
diseases. Of course, in making this preliminary examination you will
note if death could have been the result of some other reason. Has some
obstruction had anything to do with the trouble? Maybe the animal has
been caught in some way and not being able to move about has starved to
death, or maybe some over-exertion has had something to do with the
trouble.

Many animals choke, and, not being able to relieve themselves, die.
Thousands of farm animals, especially in the West and Southwest, die
annually from cold, and not a few from heat. All these things enter into
the case and must be considered in reaching a reasonable conclusion.


=Observe the Discharges.=--The next thing to do is to observe the
discharges from nose, mouth and other natural openings of the body.
External scars and wounds often bear a close relation to the disease and
these should be considered in examining the carcass. How do the eyes
look? Is there a discharge from the ears? Is the swelling of the abdomen
and the bloating more pronounced or different than should be the case in
ordinary death? Practice will indicate the lesson that each of these
teach.


=Accidents and Injury.=--Farm animals are often killed by stray shots
from the guns of hunters and trespassers. A casual observation will
indicate if death has been due to this. Again, animals may die from
distemper or be eaten up with lice or troubled with itch or mange--you
will note these facts as you go along with your work.

In the South, where Texas fever is so prevalent, you should look for
ticks, as these bring death to thousands of animals each year. Look for
the wee tiny ones--they cause the trouble. When cattle are fairly
covered with the large ticks death does not ordinarily follow, since the
animal has practically become immune to the poison caused by the tick.
These large ticks, however, are filled with blood and nutriment, both
obtained from the animal, and hence they may rob the animal of blood and
nutriment that it ought to have itself.


=After Removing the Skin.=--The skin is now to be removed, so that the
color of the tissues and the nature of the blood may be noted. If the
blood be thin or black, with a disagreeable odor, you can expect some
germ trouble like blood poisoning or an infectious and contagious
disease. If the white tissues are yellow you may be reasonably certain
that the liver has not done its work as it would have done had it been
in a thoroughly healthy condition.

In removing the skin and making other observations be cautious that you
do not prick your fingers with the knife, since you may convey in this
way disease to yourself. If by accident a cut or prick is made,
cauterize the wound at once, so as to destroy any germs transmitted in
this way to you.


EXAMINING THE INTERNAL ORGANS

The next step is to examine the internal organs. To do this, place the
animal on its side, remove the upper front leg and the ribs over the
chest region. The ribs should be removed as near as possible to the
backbone so as to give an unobstructed opening over the important
organs. This large opening now allows you free access for examination,
and an unimpaired view all about the vital organs, if these are entirely
exposed.

[Illustration: ROUND WORMS IN HOG INTESTINE

An infestation with intestinal worms, as shown here, leads to
unthriftiness and a loss of flesh. These worms may be expelled by giving
turpentine in doses of one teaspoonful in milk for three days in
succession.]

While making this opening, observe the watery fluid as it escapes. If a
large quantity is present, dropsy or a rupture of the bladder is
indicated. If the trouble is due to the latter, an odor in the urine
will be quickly noted. When the fluid is red in color, it indicates the
presence of blood or some inflammation of the abdomen or the bowels. A
large amount of watery fluid in the chest cavity is an indication of
some lung trouble; this is further indicated by the tiny attachments
running between the lungs and the chest wall.


=Stomach and Intestines.=--If the stomach and intestines be abnormally
red, congestion is indicated, and if they be quite dark, even purple in
color, you may be sure that some kind of inflammation has been the
trouble. You will note also if the stomach is hard and compacted; and,
if so, indigestion may have been the trouble. The intestines will also
show if they be hard and compacted or in any otherwise bad condition.
Pass the hands along to see if the intestines are knotted in any place
or if nails are present in the stomach. It is not likely that the nails
have been the direct cause of death, but this fact helps to indicate the
condition of the digestion trap.

Often hair balls or parasites will be found; either may clog up the
channel and may be the immediate cause of death. I have on more than one
occasion found that the fuzz of crimson clover, accumulating in the
intestines of horses, rolls up into a hard, compacted ball, and not
being able to pass out, becomes an obstruction in the passageway and
ultimately causes death.


=Kidneys and Bladder.=--The urine tells its tale also; a very
disagreeable odor indicates some disturbance; and a brownish or dark-red
color may indicate a local disease or a constitutional breakdown. Texas
fever in cattle produces a very dark or reddish urine, Azoturia in
horses, a similar color. Gallstones or gravel are often found in the
bladder, and these frequently cause serious disturbance, if not death.


=Lungs.=--Look the lungs over carefully. See if the natural color is
present and if the soft, spongy constituency responds to the same kind
of touch as does the thoroughly healthy lung. In health the lungs are a
very light pink color. If inflammation has been present this will be
indicated by the dark color and the hard density.

When the lung is cut apart with the knife further observation should be
made. A marble appearance indicates inflammation and hard lumps or
tubercles indicate tuberculosis. These tubercles, when cut open, show
pus and a cheeselike material, yellow in color--a true indication of the
disease.


=Other Observations.=--You should feel the heart to know if it is
natural or not, or to see if any of the valves are broken, or if some
inflammation has been back of the trouble. The sides of the open cavity
should be observed before leaving. Is it spotted, speckled? Are pink
spots seen about the ribs? This is an indication of hog cholera, and in
itself may lead to a correct interpretation of the disease.




CHAPTER VII

Common Medicines and Their Actions


The common medicines used in treating farm animals are named in the
following list, together with origin, action, use, and dose.


ACONITE

Tincture of aconite is derived from the root of a plant. When used, the
heart beats more slowly and the blood pressure is decreased, making the
medicine desirable in cases of inflammation.

Dose: For horses and cattle, from 10 to 30 drops, and sheep and hogs 5
to 10 drops.


ALOES

This is usually bought in a powder form. It is brown in color and bitter
in taste. Considerable time transpires before action in the bowels takes
place. Allow at least 24 hours. It is a physic and blood purifier.

Dose: For horses, 4 to 5 tablespoonfuls; cattle, 4 to 8 tablespoonfuls;
sheep, 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls; and pigs, 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls.


ALUM

This mineral salt is used in washes for sore mouth and throat, and
cleansing wounds. It may be dusted into wounds in powder form, and is
both drying and healing.

Dose: Use a tablespoonful to a pint of water.


ANISEED

This preparation is made from dried berries and ground. It stimulates
digestion, sweetens the stomach, and serves as a tonic and appetite
maker.

Dose: For horses and cattle, a tablespoonful, and for sheep and pigs, a
teaspoonful.


ARNICA

For wounds, sprains, and bruises, tincture of arnica is both cooling and
restful. It is made from the dried flowers of a plant, and is for
external use. Apply three or four times daily.


ARSENIC

This medicine comes from the mineral kingdom and is very powerful. In
using better get it in some standard medicinal form such as Fowler’s
Solution. It is used as a tonic when the stomach is bad and the system
run down.

Dose: Fowler’s Solution; for horses and cattle, 2 tablespoonfuls; sheep,
1 teaspoonful; pigs, one-half teaspoonful. In giving to stock mix with 4
tablespoonfuls of whiskey, and either use as a drench or add to mash or
gruel.


BELLADONNA

This is a tincture made from a plant. When used it soothes, softens, and
relaxes the parts to which applied. It checks inflammation and relieves
pain, but must be carefully used.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 teaspoonful; sheep, 10 drops; pigs, 5
drops.


BUTTER OF ANTIMONY

This preparation, taken from a mineral, is not used internally. It is a
powerful caustic. Its principal use is for curing thrush in horses’
feet.

[Illustration: TETANUS BACILLI

How the germs look under the microscope. The poison produced by them is
one of the most violent known in disease.]


BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM

This comes as a white crystal or powder, and is used to quiet the nerves
when some trouble like lockjaw has set in.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 teaspoonful; sheep and hogs, one-half
teaspoonful.


BINIODIDE OF MERCURY

This bright red powder is used chiefly for blistering purposes. It is
excellent when a spavin or splint or ringbone is just beginning. In
preparing, use one part of the mercury to nine parts of vaseline or
lard. Remember, it is a poison, and must be carefully handled, as is
true of some other preparations of mercury.


CAMPHOR

The camphor of commerce is in the form of a gum obtained from a tree by
boiling and evaporation. It is used in mixtures for coughs, sore throat,
and heaves. It is good also for colic and diarrhœa and assists in
lessening pain. It should be given in water.

Dose: For horses, 2 to 4 teaspoonfuls; cattle, 4 to 5 teaspoonfuls; pigs
and sheep, 2 teaspoonfuls.


CANTHARIDES OR SPANISH FLY

This is in the form of powder, and is an irritant. For use it should be
thoroughly mixed with lard or vaseline. One teaspoonful of the
cantharides to 4 tablespoonfuls of lard or vaseline. When so prepared it
is excellent as a blister. It can be applied for sweat thickenings or
lumps on any part of the body that is not on the bone. It should not be
used on curbs or tumors and is not used internally.


CARBOLIC ACID

This is got from coal tar and petroleum. When full strength and pure it
is in the form of crystals, but is generally bought as a liquid. It is a
disinfectant and an antiseptic, and while used internally for some
purposes, is largely used internally in washes and solutions. Its
principal use is in bathing wounds and sores. Care should be taken not
to have a wash contain too much of the acid, as it will burn the wound
and stop the healing action. It is a corroding poison taken internally.
It should be just strong enough to kill bacteria; say, 1 part to 1,000
parts of water. A very good healing salve is made when 5 drops of pure
carbolic acid is used to 4 tablespoonfuls of vaseline.


CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE

This is used externally as an antiseptic and disinfectant. Dissolve 1
part to 100 parts of water. It is a preparation of mercury, is
poisonous, but excellent for bathing wounds and open sores.


CASTOR OIL

This oil is pressed from castor beans. It is a mild physic similar to
raw linseed oil. It is not used much for live stock.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 pint; for sheep, one-quarter pint, and
for pigs, 4 tablespoonfuls.


CALOMEL

This is a heavy white powder and a mineral. Its principal action is as a
physic, and it has a cleansing effect on the liver. Hence it is used for
all kinds of liver troubles. When dusted in old sores, it is splendid
for healing and drying up.

Dose: For horses, one-half to 1 teaspoonful; cattle, 1 to 2
teaspoonfuls; sheep and pigs, one-eighth teaspoonful.


CROTON OIL

This oil is made from seeds, and is one of the most powerful physics
known. It should never be used until milder physics do not respond. Use
it as a last resort.

Dose: For horses, 15 to 20 drops; cattle, 30 to 40 drops; sheep, 5 to 10
drops; and pigs, 2 to 3 drops. In giving, it is best to use in
connection with raw linseed oil; of the linseed oil use 1 pint for
horses and cattle and one-quarter pint for sheep and pigs.


CAUSTIC POTASH

This chemical is most easily used when purchased in pencil-like sticks.
It is never given internally, but is used to burn warts and growths by
wetting the stick and rubbing it over them. It is also used for burning
poisonous wounds to kill the poison. It is commonly employed for
dishorning calves. When a week or ten days old, and the button of the
horn is just appearing, rub the potash over the horn. This usually
insures destruction of the horn substance. Wet the stick of potash. See
that drippings do not run down the animal’s head. In order to protect
the fingers, when using, wrap paper around the stick.


CREOLIN

This is the product of coal tar and comes in the form of a thick, dark
fluid, and, like tar, is harmless. It is frequently used as the basis of
salves for wounds, scratches, and like troubles. It is a very effective
remedy for killing lice, ticks, or fleas, and is used as a remedy when
sheep are afflicted with mange and scab.

Dose: Use from 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls to a pint of water and shake well
before using. Make up a small quantity at a time, as creolin thus made
loses its value after exposure. For disinfecting purposes, 1 part of
creolin to 100 parts of water is satisfactory.


GENTIAN

This is the root of a plant, dried and ground. It is used principally as
a tonic, and is very bitter; commonly found in condition powders and is
given to animals that are weak and run down. If used alone, give twice a
day in the food and place on the tongue with a spoon.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 tablespoonful; for sheep, a teaspoonful;
pigs, one-half teaspoonful.


GINGER

This is a dried root ground fine, secured from a plant, and acts as a
stimulant, relieving gases that accumulate in the stomach. It is an
excellent ingredient to use in colic and indigestion preparations. If
given alone, doses may be repeated every two or three hours.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 tablespoonful; sheep, 1 small
teaspoonful; pigs, one-half teaspoonful.


HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA

This salt is frequently used in combination with gentian, equal parts of
both, and in other recipes for condition powder. It cleans the blood and
builds up the system after weakening diseases. A common preparation is
made by using one-half of powdered gentian and one-half of hyposulphite
of soda. Mix all together and give two or three times a day to the
animal needing it.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 tablespoonful; sheep, 1 teaspoonful;
pigs, one-half teaspoonful.


IODINE

This dark brown tincture is not often used internally, but is used as a
sweat blister and for blistering thickened glands. In using, take a
feather, painting the iodine on the lump until it blisters; when the
blister appears, grease the part; after two or three days have passed,
wash the lump with warm water and soap and blister again.


IODIDE OF POTASSIUM

This white powder is obtained from the mineral kingdom. When given
internally it acts as an absorbent. It is commonly used in cases of
dropsy of the belly. In administering, use equal parts of ground gentian
root and give twice a day.

Dose: For horses and cattle a teaspoonful; for sheep and pigs, one-half
teaspoonful.


LINSEED OIL

This oil is obtained from flaxseed, and is excellent when a mild physic
is desired. The easiest and most effective way of giving to animals is
in the form of a drench. About 1 pint should be used for horses and
cattle. Raw linseed oil is usually preferred to the boiled.


LAUDANUM

This is made from opium and is used both internally and externally. It
is commonly used where there is pain, hence it is excellent for
relieving pain and spasms and assists also in checking inflammation.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 4 to 6 teaspoonfuls; sheep and pigs, 2 to 4
teaspoonfuls.


NUX VOMICA

This powder comes from ground seeds, and is used as a nerve stimulant.
It is very efficacious for strengthening weak, debilitated animals. A
common way is to mix equal parts of gentian and powdered nux vomica
thoroughly together. This may be given as a drench, or in the feed or
placed at the back of the tongue with a spoon.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 teaspoonful three times a day; for sheep
and pigs, one-half teaspoonful.


NITRATE OF SILVER

This comes in the form of white penciled sticks. It is excellent for
burning off warts, proud flesh in cuts and growths on any part of the
body. Just wet the stick and rub it on the parts. Of course, be careful
that your fingers are protected from the chemical. It is a poison taken
internally.


NITRATE OF POTASH

This is frequently called saltpeter, and comes as a white crystal or
powder. It is used for kidney, lung and blood troubles. It has a very
acute action on the kidneys, causing them to secrete an extra amount of
urine.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 teaspoonful; sheep and pigs, one-half
teaspoonful.


SULPHATE OF COPPER

This is commonly known as blue vitriol or bluestone. It is excellent
when given internally for checking discharges, especially those of a
chronic catarrhal nature. It may also be used as a wash for wounds, when
a weak solution is made, and may be dusted on the wound every day or two
in case proud flesh forms.


SULPHATE OF IRON

Green vitriol, or copperas, as it is commonly known, is a splendid
mineral tonic, and is commonly used in combination with gentian, equal
parts of the two. Use when the system is badly run down. It is also
excellent as a worm powder.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 teaspoonful three times a day; sheep and
pigs, one-half teaspoonful.


SUGAR OF LEAD

This is frequently called acetate of lead. It is seldom used internally,
but quite generally externally for healing washes, particularly for the
eye.


SWEET SPIRITS OF NITER

This sweet-tasting and smelling preparation is obtained from alcohol,
and is in the form of a clear liquid. It acts upon the kidneys and skin
and is commonly given in the drinking water of animals. It is used in
combination with other medicines for colic and indigestion. It thus acts
upon the bowels and stomach and relieves pain and dissipates the gases.
In giving to animals mix in a pint of lukewarm water and give as a
drench.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls; for sheep and pigs,
1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.


SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE

This is the ordinary turpentine known by all. It is excellent in cases
of acute indigestion and colic, and is destructive to bots and the long
round worms in horses. When used externally it is as a liniment. When
used internally a small quantity is given with raw linseed oil.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 4 tablespoonfuls; for sheep and pigs, 1
tablespoonful.


SALTS

The two common salts used for live stock are Epsom and Glauber. Epsom
salts are most frequently used, the chief action being as a physic.
Aloes take the places of salts for horses, as it is believed these are
much better than the mineral salts. In giving salts to cattle, the
drench is most satisfactory.

Dose: Use 1 quart of warm water in which place 1 tablespoonful of ginger
and 1 tablespoonful of common soda. To this add 1 pint to 1½ pints of
salts and dissolve by shaking or stirring. For sheep and pigs,
one-quarter of this amount is sufficient.


SULPHUR

This yellow powder is well known and is a great medicine when given
internally. It acts on the blood and purifies it. It is excellent also
for killing parasites or germs in the skin, hence it is good for all
diseases. When used internally it is best to combine with gentian root.
Give once a day for a short period.

Dose: For horses and cattle, 1 tablespoonful; sheep and pigs, 1
teaspoonful.


SOME COMMON PRESCRIPTIONS


=Colic Mixture.=--Laudanum, 16 tablespoonfuls; aromatic spirits of
ammonia, 12 tablespoonfuls; sulphuric ether, 2 tablespoonfuls; tincture
of aconite, 10 drops; ginger, 16 tablespoonfuls. Dissolve in a pint of
water. From 10 to 20 tablespoonfuls of this can be given in one-half
pint of water. If relief is not secured, repeat in a half hour, follow
with a third dose, then with another, giving the doses one-half to one
hour apart.


=Fly Blister.=--Powdered cantharides, 2 teaspoonfuls; gum camphor
powdered, 2 tablespoonfuls; lard, 8 tablespoonfuls. After thoroughly
mixing, rub in 5 to 10 minutes, depending on the severity of the blister
desired.


=Red Blister.=--Gum camphor powdered, 2 tablespoonfuls; biniodide of
mercury, 2 teaspoonfuls; lard, 8 tablespoonfuls. This should be rubbed
in from 5 to 10 minutes.


=Cough Mixture.=--Belladonna, 2 tablespoonfuls; pulverized opium, 2
tablespoonfuls; gum camphor, pulverized, 2 teaspoonfuls; chloride of
ammonia, 2 tablespoonfuls; sulphur, 4 tablespoonfuls. An easy way to
give this is to mix with molasses and flour until a paste is secured.


=Soothing Ointment.=--Laudanum, 8 tablespoonfuls; aconite, 4
tablespoonfuls. This is excellent for sprains, and relieves the pain and
soreness when applied to a part where there is much inflammation.


=Hoof Ointment.=--Raw linseed oil, one-quarter pound; crude petroleum
oil, one-quarter pound; neat’s-foot oil, one-quarter pound; pine tar,
one-quarter pound. Mix well and apply every night with a brush all over
and under the hoof. A little in the hair above will do no harm. Clean
out the hoof before applying.


=Physic Drench for Horses.=--Aloes, 8 teaspoonfuls; common soda, 1
teaspoonful; ginger, 1 teaspoonful. Dissolve these in a pint of lukewarm
water and give as a drench. The horse should be allowed rest the day
following its use.

[Illustration: READY FOR THE DRENCH

A simple device for giving drenches to horses.]


=Physic Drench for Cattle.=--Epsom salts, 1 pound; ginger, 1
tablespoonful; common soda, 1 tablespoonful. Dissolve in a quart of
lukewarm water and give as a drench. It is a splendid general physic for
cows, and can be given at any time when they are thought not to be
thriving as they should.




CHAPTER VIII

The Meaning of Disease


Any departure from a normal condition is disease. The body, composed of
different organs and parts, is in a healthy state when each of these
performs its natural functions. Thus the normal mind is concerned with
normal mental acts; any disturbances of the brain or spinal cords is
immediately manifested in the action of the animal; likewise frequently
a disturbance elsewhere may later have its effect on the mental system.

Disease may result from some external cause like from a wound, from food
causing poison or derangement of the digestive system, from water
introducing impurities, from parasites that disturb normal functions,
disorganize tissue or produce toxines, or from other abnormal
conditions--all of which interfere with the normal functions of one or
more organs, regions, or parts.

In most cases the disturbances are readily recognized. Swellings,
bruises and wounds are located at a glance. When blood passes from nose,
ears or intestines, a key to the trouble is at hand. Coughs have their
story. And vomiting, diarrhœa, convulsions, spasms, abnormal breathing
or temperature each indicates at what points an abnormal condition is
evident.


=Disease, Both General and Local.=--Some diseases lead to disturbance
throughout the entire body. For instance, pus may accumulate at some
point from which it finds its way into the blood, in the end reaching to
other parts of the body that in time also become affected.

Those diseases, with which fever is associated, are general in nature.
The nerve centers are influenced, the body heat is increased and a
weakened condition prevails. Back of this are the disease
poisons--chemical poisons or germ poisons.

When the temperature of the body, as a result of fever, rises too high
certain life principles are changed and death immediately follows. A
temperature of 106° or 107° is very high, and, therefore, very
dangerous. In treating disease the temperature is watched, that the
course of the fever may be followed. Treating a fever, then, is helpful
and a natural part of the treatment of the disease itself. The basis of
the curative process rests upon the principle of proper circulation and
the excretion of the impure substances.


CAUSES OF DISEASE

In the first place most diseases arise from mismanagement. The very
principles at the bottom of good health receive no consideration and
little thought. On some farms it is seldom that a case of disease is
heard of; on others, stock are under treatment at all times. Where order
prevails, where cleanliness is appreciated, where disease-producing
conditions are never allowed to accumulate or even gain an introduction,
health is the rule and disease the exception. When the latter appears,
it is due to some outside influence that gave it admission.

The greatest mischief in handling farm stock comes from improper food,
filthy or impure drinking water, bad ventilation of stables, overwork,
or lack of exercise and poor sanitary conditions.

Disease, therefore, is largely due to causes within control of the owner
of the farm stock. True, one source of trouble is due to mechanical
causes: horses get nail punctures, legs and necks and head are cut in
fences, blows bring bruises. But whose fault? Certainly not the animal.
Old boards with nails ought not to be left in all sorts of places,
fences should be protected, and stable fixtures, gates and harnesses
should be in such order that only in rare cases will injury result.


=Disease from Chemical Causes.=--Poisonous materials and poisonous
plants cause death to thousands of animals annually. Of great importance
to the stock interests is the rapid destruction of these harmful
products. Fortunately in the older sections these are about eliminated
now, and we are also understanding more about the molds that lead to bad
results when moldy forage is given as feed to farm animals. In time
disease will be considerably lessened when only clean, wholesome food
finds its way into the mangers and feed racks--then disease will depart
and more rapid gains will come.


=Heredity Plays a Part.=--Despite caution and care, health is often
disturbed because of hereditary influences. Thanks to science, we know
now that many of the old bugbears of the past, and once so entrenched,
have become dislodged, and their true import set right before the owner.
Tuberculosis, for instance, once so dreaded in both man and beast, is
now known not to be handed down from parent to progeny; it is a germ
disease, pure and simple, and gets its start just as many other
ailments--through breath, or drink, or feed. There are hereditary
troubles, however, that continue down through many generations. The
narrow hock of the horse invites curb diseases; the narrow chest is a
good breeding ground for tuberculosis germs; straight pasterns are bad
for the feet; poor conformation is not consistent with efficiency or
easy functional activity.

These examples clearly show that form and type and physical
characteristics have roles to play in animal economy and in health to
which the wise stockman will give heed.

[Illustration: BACTERIA AS SEEN UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

_a_, Spirillum. _b_, Micrococcus. _c_, Micrococcus. _d_, Streptococcus.
_e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, Rod-shaped bacteria. _i_ and _j_, Divisions.]


=Germs and Parasites.=--In addition to the above causes of disease,
another class is before us ready to inflict its injury at all times.
Indeed, it is a class of the greatest importance. I refer now to
parasites, bacteria, and germs, which cause more loss to live stock than
all others combined. Think of hog cholera, a germ disease; of
tuberculosis, a germ disease; of stomach worms, parasites; of staggers,
a mold disease; of abortion, a germ disease; and hundreds of like
nature, all due to parasites and germs, disease agents that disturb and
destroy the delicate organs or exposed regions, as the case may be,
regardless of age, value, or breed.

Of course, remedies and treatment are being worked out to meet these
individual diseases as they occur. Nevertheless, the best treatment is
prevention. It is far better to prevent than to cure; and that is the
line of action especially for this class. Indeed, it is far easier to
understand the simple laws of prevention than the complicated curative
processes. Especially is this true since germs are known and isolated,
and their rapid destruction with air, sunlight, and disinfectants
understood and available.


ORIGIN OF DISEASE

Enough has now been said to indicate that disease originates as a
reaction between the cause of it and the body. Withhold food, and
starvation--the disease--follows. Withhold fresh air and oxygen, and the
tissue breaks down; disease results as a reaction from the normal use of
air and the demands of the body for oxygen. Allow bacteria admission to
the body and settlement in the tissues or organs most agreeable to each
particular one, and these will grow, multiply, and, unless overcome by
the natural resistance of the body, will conquer and destroy, causing
sooner or later death and decay.


=Immunity Sought by Inoculation.=--Many diseases that now yield to no
curative treatment are being met by inoculation. By this method the body
is reinforced by serum injections, that disease germs and infections may
be warded off, or in case of attack, be so fortified against the disease
germs as to destroy them or render them inactive.


=Some Animals More Resistant to Disease.=--An infectious and contagious
disease may affect a herd or flock, destroying few or many. Some may
never be affected and yet be subjected to exposure and contagion; such
are immune and resist this particular disease. Others may suffer a mild
attack, but throw it off with no disastrous consequence; such are strong
and their organs ably fortified against any injurious inroad by the
disease. On the other hand the majority in a flock or herd is not so
able to throw off the disease for the reason of being predisposed by
nature to such attacks; their very susceptibility invites attack, and if
the infection is intensely virulent the affected body will most likely
yield and death follow.


THE COURSE OF DISEASE

Each disease possesses its own peculiar characteristics, which are more
or less conspicuous in each individual case. Then, too, some diseases
develop quickly and end quickly. Others run a course of several weeks;
and still others several months or even years. The first class is acute,
the second chronic. In both kinds nature is at work endeavoring always
to effect a cure; and, unless other complications arise, the result of
improper food, bad sanitary quarters, bad air, or conditions not
conducive to health, recovery will, in most cases, result. The great
drawback to rapid recovery comes from the outside influences that
counteract the curative processes of the body itself. Good nursing, good
air, proper food, are back of rapid recovery.

Most diseases have been carefully studied, and their course of
development has been mapped out. Our veterinarians know, in a general
way, how fever acts in live stock. If an animal is inoculated with
Texas fever germs, the veterinarian knows the course of the disease
beforehand. In a general way, he knows when the fever will begin, how
long it will last, when it will be at its highest point, and when it
will disappear. He knows all of this, even before he makes the
inoculation. Yet no disease invariably runs the same course in different
individuals. In fact, the virulence of bacteria have much to do with the
course; mild cases occur usually when the germ is weak, and severe cases
when the germs are very virulent. This explains why some attacks of
measles or Texas fever or hog cholera are more fatal than other attacks
in other places, or at other seasons of the year.


=Typical Courses the Rule.=--It is in rare cases only that a regular
course is not followed by most diseases. Take an infectious disease. The
period of incubation comes first; this follows up the infection. During
this period, no change in the animal is observed. He seems well, acts
well, and does his work well. Nevertheless, all the time, during this
period of infection, the germs are developing, multiplying, gaining
headway, and so entrenching themselves that illness and disorder will
soon follow. The period of infection varies in different animals and in
different diseases. It may take two or three weeks for development, or
as few as two or three days.

Following the period of infection comes the period of eruption. At this
stage the typical characteristics are observed. At the next step the
disease reaches its height with the animal under its complete dominion.
But only temporarily. If properly nursed and treated, with most
diseases, the animal will pass through the period and recover.

The final stage is the period of improvement. The battle that has been
waged between the body and the disease is now about ended. The disease
germs have been routed and the body has been victorious. All that now
remains is the clearing away of the débris. In this case it is scattered
throughout the body system. The damage that has been done is to be
repaired and left, if possible, as near to the original condition, as
the nature of the disease will allow. The period of improvement will
vary in different diseases and in different animals. Recovery may occur
in a few days, in some cases, and in others weeks and months will be
required. A change of feed or pasture or work is usually necessary if
the most rapid recovery would be had. In some cases, nothing other than
absolute rest will suffice.


THE TERMINATION OF DISEASES

After the disease has run its course, the body usually returns to its
former normal condition. There seems to be a limit to what the disease
can do. A healthy body may be attacked, but, in the end, disease
retires, having used itself up. There are diseases, however, that leave
their marks in many ways. And these become permanent marks. With many of
these all of us are acquainted. Smallpox is one. The pits over the face
record the fierce battle that was fought. The same is true of wasted
tissues, with scars that conspicuously mark the track along which blood
poison has traveled. The shrunken hoof of the foundered horse tells the
adverse termination of that disease.

While recovery may be more or less complete, the effect is to seriously
injure the worth and value of the individual. There is a long list of
this kind.

[Illustration: RESULT OF BONE SPAVIN

Pictured here is a natural hock free from disease and a diseased hock,
the result of bone spavin. The bone is seriously affected and the easy
action prevented.]

Other diseases act differently in another way. They progress slowly, are
not noticeable at first, but in the end are incurable. Take glanders as
a typical case. It quietly and silently develops, often taking months or
years in reaching the stage of eruption or before it becomes apparent.
During all this time, and even after the disease is recognizable, the
animal goes on about his duties with no apparent trouble. The disease,
however, is progressing all the time; in the end it conquers its victim,
the final stages are reached, and the animal dies.

The stock raiser is concerned with different diseases in so far as they
mean slow or rapid recovery, and particularly if they be contagious or
not. His entire herd will be impaired if glanders is introduced into it.
One tuberculosis cow will convey the disease to all susceptible
individuals in the herd to which she belongs, especially if stabled in a
tight barn during the winter seasons when little or no ventilation is
intentionally provided.




CHAPTER IX

Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease


Some diseases are not difficult to diagnose. Those resulting from wounds
or knocks are easily located, and their treatment readily outlined.
Others, however, are not so easy. Something is observed as wrong, the
animal acts strangely, does not take to its food, is fretful, stands or
walks unnatural--what is the matter? The stockman must ascertain the
trouble, and the quicker the better.

A review of the past few days is desirable. Where has the animal been?
What kind of food has it had? With what strange fellows has it
associated? Has it been put to excessive work or exposed to unusual
weather or conditions? What infectious diseases are prevalent in the
community? These and other questions will occur; in some instances the
answer will be at hand.


MAKE A PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

The stockman should at least know the fundamental principles of health
and of any departure from them that indicate disease. Hence a
superficial examination of the animal, as a whole, is in line of
diagnosing the disease. Note the general condition of the body. The
thermometer will advise you rightly. Is there pain? If possible
determine this point and locate the seat of it. Is the circulation
natural? An examination of the pulse will tell you if the blood is
racing rapidly or gliding slowly, and whether regular or rough. Is the
respiration as it should be? Count the number a minute that you may know
if the number is more or less, or is as it should be. On listening to
the lungs, heart, and blood vessels, certain sounds are heard which
change with disease--normal and heart murmurs. Whether or not an organ
contains air can be determined by percussion, since solid organs, the
lungs, for instance, in pneumonia, give a different sound from those
containing air as they are normally. Air-containing organs--lungs and
intestines--may thus be distinguished from the solid ones adjoining
them. In this way their varying size in health and disease may be
determined.

Your examination should go further and include the natural
discharges--the dung, the urine, the nose moisture and the “look of the
eye.” In cases of fever the urine is scanty and deeply colored. In Texas
fever, for instance, the urine is dark red. In azoturia in horses, it
varies from a light color to a deep brown or black. The nature of the
dung should be observed, if watery or dry, soft or hard, scanty or
profuse.


=Taking the Pulse.=--Stand at the left side of the horse and run the
finger along the lower jaw until you come to the point where the artery
crosses the jaw on its lower edge. This will be found about two inches
forward from its angle. Right here is the large muscle and at the front
edge the pulsations may be caught. To get the pulse of the cow, stand at
the left side, reach over the neck and take it from the right jaw.

In the horse the normal pulse beats are from 35 to 40 per minute and may
go to 100 in disease. In the cow the pulsations run from 45 to 50 in
health. The pulse relates its story very accurately and, with practice,
can be constantly used in diagnosing the nature of the ailment. For
instance, a soft pulse, one that is easily compressed by the finger,
indicates bronchitis. A hard pulse, one not easily depressed by the
finger, indicates acute inflammation. A hard pulse may be quick and
bounding and forceful. An irregular pulse, one that beats fast for a
time, then slowly, indicates a weakened heart condition. A slow, full
pulse, one that comes up gradually to the finger touch, indicates some
brain trouble.

[Illustration: FEELING THE PULSE

The heart beat, as it is called, may be felt by placing the finger over
any of the superficial arteries. The submaxillary artery as it passes
under the edge of the lower jaw close to the bone is a convenient vessel
for the purpose.]


=Taking the Temperature.=--While the heat of the body may be surmised by
touch and feeling this is not a reliable guide as to the temperature. A
self-registering thermometer, inserted into the rectum, is the only
reliable means for getting this desirable information. In a state of
health the temperature of the horse ranges from 100° to 102.5°.

When the temperature rises, inflammation is indicated. A fall in
temperature below normal denotes loss of strength, vitality, and death.
If the temperature rises three or four degrees above normal, the case is
serious, and a rise of five or six is very dangerous. Animals seldom
survive when the rise reaches above 107° or 108°.

A good clinical thermometer should be in the possession of every
stockman. It costs but little, and its aid in recognizing and treating
disease is helpful, if not absolutely indispensable.


=Taking the Respiration.=--In breathing two movements are
observed--taking in and sending out the air. In health the respiration
is usually constant, ranging from 10 to 14 in the horses, and from 15 to
20 in cattle. Breathing is faster in young animals; and exercise
increases the number of respirations per minute.

Any disease of the respiratory organs will cause the breathing to be
short and rapid and labored. If the number of respirations seem more
than normal, some disturbance is indicated. If the pulse is faster at
the same time, illness is at once indicated, and the trouble should be
sought at once.


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE

The first effort in treating disease is to remove the cause. This is
sometimes done very easily. Mange and lice are quickly destroyed by
washes and disinfectants.

Bright, fresh, wholesome food and pure water easily replace bad food and
water to the permanent good of the stock. Cattle ticks quickly disappear
when the grease brush is applied. And so in every direction you take to
fight the disease: find the cause and then remove it, and half the
battle is fought.

If disease-producing germs cannot be killed at the moment, it is still
possible to diminish their number or to modify their virulence. Thus to
open an abscess is to remove the pus-producing bacteria, and hence to
hasten recovery. To wash a wound or open sore with antiseptics is the
simplest way to remove, diminish, and destroy the evil of the sore.

[Illustration: HOW HEAT AFFECTS GROWTH

At the end of 24 hours in _a_ but seven bacteria have developed, the
temperature being 50 degrees. In _b_ 700 have developed in the same
time, but in a temperature of 70 degrees.]


=Helping the Body Fight.=--When disease sets in a battle begins. One
combatant is the disease itself, the other the body. Your work is to
render assistance to the body. In many cases your help will not be
needed. In others you can render incalculable aid. Here is where medical
aid begins and ends: to care for and nurse and make the body strong that
it may be victorious, quickly, if possible, but without fail, in the
end. Medicines are helpful if they diminish the work of the diseased
organ, giving in this way time for the body cells to bring about a cure.
Therefore rest and quietness are advisable, that no organ may be called
upon for any effort but normal function and repair. A disease of the
heart calls for absolute rest, of the intestines for little or no
irritating or bulky or hard food, of the lungs for no exposure. At times
it is advisable to check the activity of an organ, in which case a drug
may be given, like opium, to quiet the intestines, or like aconite, to
diminish the rate of the blood flow.

In the same way external assistance may be rendered; as, for example,
sweating--to throw off poison in the tissue juices; and blanketing--to
maintain an even temperature and to protect from chill and draught.


ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

Medicines are conveyed into the body as drenches, balls, enemas, and
injections under the skin or into the veins. There is nothing mysterious
about any of them.


=Giving Medicines in a Ball.=--The practice of giving medicines in a
ball is a very old one, and has much to recommend it. Many nauseous
agents as aloes, opium, arsenic, asafetida, are thus conveyed to the
stomach without causing annoyance and disgust to the patient. The balls
are wrapped in paper, dough, or gelatin capsules, and may weigh an ounce
or two. In giving a ball the following plan is usually followed: Hold
the ball between the thumb and first two fingers. Now seize the tongue
at about its middle and gently draw it out to the side of the mouth, in
such a way that the right hand may be inserted into the mouth and the
ball placed far back on the tongue, when the hand is withdrawn, the
tongue replaced and the halter or strap wrapped around the jaws until
the ball is swallowed.


=Giving Medicines in a Drench.=--The drench is usually employed for
liquid medicines. It is best to dilute the medicines with water, milk,
or oil that they may more readily reach the stomach and at the same
time exercise no injury to the structures through which they pass.

In giving a drench exercise as much patience as possible. To horses it
should be given slowly. If there is any disposition to cough, lower the
head, and then proceed as before.


=Poultices.=--These are made of a variety of things, bread, bran, and
linseed meal being the most common. Any substance that will hold water
and retain heat will serve the purpose.


=Mustard Plasters.=--These are made with mustard and water, cold water
being the most desirable. Mix to a thin paste. If the part to which the
plaster is to be applied is covered with thick, long hair, a very thin
plaster will more quickly soak into the skin. This kind of plaster is
most commonly applied to the throat, the windpipe, the sides of the
chest, the abdomen and over the region of the liver. To get the best
effect for the last named, apply on the right side at a point four or
five inches behind the back ribs.


=Blistering.=--The first step in blistering is the clipping of the hair
over the diseased part, and the removal of dirt and scurf attached to
the skin. The blister is to be worked into the skin, and usually ten
minutes of rubbing will be necessary to produce the desired results.

In the course of twenty-four hours blisters will form, and some swelling
in the region is likely to be manifest. On the third day bathe the part
with warm water and soap. After drying, apply vaseline, lard, or sweet
oil. The blister should be repeated if the results of the first blister
do not bring about a cure.


=Firing.=--The hot iron is a very useful agent in treating many cases of
chronic lameness and bone diseases. In performing such an operation
have the iron at a full red and white heat and touch the part gently
with just sufficient pressure to make a distinct impression. But one leg
should be fired at a time.

It is desirable to shave the hair closely to the skin before applying
the iron. The day following the firing spread over the wound any common
wound oil like neat’s-foot oil or vaseline. Daily applications are
called for until the swelling subsides. Unless a period of rest is given
after the operation, the best results will not be had. Many bone
diseases return, or are never cured, because complete recovery never
occurred in the first place. Work and exertion only aggravate the cases,
often leaving them in a worse condition than before the firing.


CARING FOR SICK ANIMALS

In the first place keep them clean. If necessary wash them daily,
especially the parts liable to get filthy and dirty. In fever cases a
gentle sponging, every few hours during the day, is desirable. Vinegar
added to tepid water is very good.

Animals in feverish or chilly condition can be assisted by blankets and
bandages. These are very helpful in warding off congestion of the
internal organs and in maintaining an even temperature of the body. Any
warm rug or blanket that is clean and light will serve.

In bandaging the legs, endeavor to get an equal pressure at all points.
A long roll is, therefore, best, and several layers should be wrapped
around the member. It is a good plan to remove the bandage, replacing
with another at least once a day, and two a day are better. When a
bandage is removed, the skin should be washed and rubbed with the hand
and fingers, and the covering replaced as promptly as possible.


=Food and Drink.=--During sickness only easily digestible food should be
provided. Offer something different from the ordinary, and let it be
prepared in an appetizing form. Nothing is better than gruels and
mashes. These are soft, nourishing, appetizing, and easily digested.
When active nutrition is demanded, milk and eggs can be added to the
ordinary gruels or mashes.

Water should be available at all times. Small amounts at frequent
intervals are better than large amounts at intervals far apart. In a few
instances only is it best to withhold the water. In treating dysentery,
diarrhœa and diabetes water is usually withheld, but in most diseases a
free use is allowable and desirable.




CHAPTER X

Diseases of Farm Animals


=ABORTION.=--The expulsion of the fetus at a period too young to live
exterior of its mother is known as abortion. This ailment may afflict
cows, mares, sows, and ewes, but is most common among cows.

Abortion may be divided into two classes, namely, accidental and
contagious. If we had nothing but the accidental form of abortion to
contend with we would hear very little about this disease, owing to the
fact that it is perfectly natural for animals to carry their young full
time, regardless of how much they may be punished or abused while in
this condition if their system be free from the germs of contagious
abortion. On the other hand, contagious abortion is a very destructive
disease, causing heavy losses to the stockmen of the United States as
well as to other countries. Contagious abortion is divided into two
classes, namely, acute and chronic. Cows afflicted with the acute form
of abortion may lose from one to three calves. Cows, after passing from
the acute to the chronic form of abortion, may carry their calves full
time, but are as badly affected with the germs of contagious abortion as
they were in the acute form, when they were losing their calves.

[Illustration: DISEASES OF THE HORSE

1 Poll Evil, 2 Swelling by Bridle Pressure, 3 Inflamed Parotid Gland,
4 Inflamed Jugular Vein, 5 Caries of the Lower Jaw, 6 Fistula of Parotid
Duct, 7 Bony Excrescence, 8 Fistula of Withers, 9 Saddle Gall, 10 Tumor
Caused by Collar, 11 Splint, 12 Malanders, 13 A Tread on the Coronet,
14 Sand Crack, 15 Quittor, 16 Knee Bunch, 17 Clap on Back Sinews,
18 Ring Bone, 19 Foundered Foot, 20 Ventral Hernia, 21 Rat Tail,
22 Spavin, 23 Curb, 24 Quarter Crack, 25 Thick Leg, 26 Malanders,
27 Capped Hock, 28 Swelled Sinews, 29 Grease, 30 Sand Crack, 31 Tumor of
Elbow.]

Perhaps the greatest damage brought about with cattle afflicted with the
chronic form of abortion is the shortage of milk. Animals afflicted with
accidental abortion show very few marked symptoms before they abort.
Animals afflicted with contagious abortion have a number of marked
symptoms, namely, little red patches of infection on the lining of the
vulva, and there may also be present a catarrhal discharge. The sheath
of the herd bull in the acute form of the disease has a catarrhal
discharge, while the symptoms of calves is a swelling of the glands of
the throat from ear to ear. These last named symptoms do not appear in
accidental abortion.

Owing to the fact that the germs of contagious abortion are found in the
mothers’ blood, in the genital organs of the cow and the bull, and in
the stables wherein they are housed, it has been positively decided that
the only reliable and effectual treatment for contagious abortion is the
hypodermic treatment, which destroys the germ in the mother’s blood. The
genital organs of the cow and bull should be washed out with the
antiseptic solution made of 1 pint of corrosive sublimate to 1,000 parts
of water, and the germs contained in the stables wherein afflicted
animals are housed should be destroyed by disinfectants. In this way the
disease is met at every turn, and it is impossible for the disease of
contagious abortion to exist when thus handled.


=ABSCESS.=--A collection of pus in a new-formed cavity in the body. It
has a well-defined wall surrounding it. An abscess is the result of
entrance of micro-organisms into the body. They may have entered through
wounds or into the hair follicles, or abscesses may result from
infectious diseases, as strangles or distemper in the horse. At the seat
of the abscess formation swelling occurs, the part feels warmer than the
surrounding tissue, is painful to touch, and hard. These conditions are
due to the inflammation of the part. Later it becomes soft, less
sensitive, and fluctuates, which shows that it is coming to a head, or
that the pus is collecting. If the skin is white it will show a yellow
color in the center, which is usually raised above the surface, and the
hair falls out. This soon breaks and discharges pus.

It is advisable to hasten the ripening of the abscess by hot
applications in form of poultices, or a large pack of cotton saturated
with hot bichloride of mercury 1 part to 1,000 parts of water, or use
some one of the coal tar dips 1 part to 50 parts of water. The
application of a light blister will often hasten ripening. When the pus
has collected or the abscess has come to a head, it should be opened at
the lowest part in order to give free drainage to the pus contained
within.

Great care should be used in opening abscesses--not to cut blood vessels
which might be in the vicinity. In case the abscess breaks of its own
accord, it is often necessary to enlarge the opening, in order to give
free drainage for the pus. If the abscess is large or deep-seated it
should be washed out each day with bichloride of mercury 1 part to water
1,000 parts, or with a 2 per cent solution of some one of the coal tar
dips. After it is opened do not apply bandages, as they prevent the free
escape of pus. Do not allow the opening to close until it heals from the
bottom; or, in other words, as long as it secretes pus, for there is
danger of its breaking out again. If the opening is too high up, or not
large enough, it may result in a running sore or fistula.


=ACTINOMYCOSIS.=--Called lumpy jaw, because of the frequency of the
swelling located on the jaw. It is due to the entrance of a specific
organism, a fungus, into the tissues. This causes an inflammation, with
an increase in the amount of tissue, as shown by the enlargement and in
which an abscess is formed. Adult cattle are the only animals commonly
affected with this disease, but occasionally nearly all classes of
domestic animals may be affected. A number of cases have also been
reported in man, but the disease in cattle, being localized to a small
region of body, usually the head, there is little danger of transmission
from animal to man in eating beef.

[Illustration: LUMPY JAW

An exterior view showing location of lumpy jaw.]

The symptoms are recognized by the characteristic tumor, usually
observed on the jaw, either of the bone or of the soft tissues in that
vicinity. It may, however, affect the tongue, or, in fact, nearly any of
the organs of the body. Its development is more or less of a slow,
constant growth, beginning with a very small nodule, but, when allowed
to run its course, may reach the size of a cocoanut, or larger. On
reaching some size, it usually ruptures and from it discharges a thick,
yellowish pus. It is to be distinguished very largely by its commonly
affecting cattle, its location, its slow growth and its firm, hard
consistency, and finally a discharge of pus from it.

Treatment consists, if of small size in the soft tissues, of complete
excision by the knife. But, if of larger size, or when the bone or large
blood vessels are involved, recourse should be had to the internal
administration of iodide of potash from one to two teaspoonfuls in a
drench of a quart of water, or, in some instances, it may be given in
the drinking water once daily. This should be continued for a week or
ten days, when the treatment should be discontinued for a like time,
and, if necessary, repeated several times.


=AFTERBIRTH, RETENTION OF.=--This is a condition resulting from the
failure of the mother to pass the membranes after the birth of her
young. It happens most frequently in cases of abortion, or when birth
occurs before time. There is usually more or less of a mass of the
membranes hanging from the opening, which occasionally reaches to below
the hock, or even to the ground. When fresh it looks somewhat like the
intestines, but if exposed to the air for some time it is grayish in
color, especially when it begins to decompose. The odor is very
offensive, and the discharge soils all the hind parts of the animal. In
these cases the health of the animal suffers, and fever frequently
results, with a loss of appetite and flow of milk. The fever and
inflammation of the parts may go so far as to cause the death of the
animal.

The afterbirth should never be allowed to remain over three days in the
cow, nor over twenty-four hours in the mare. In the mare, sow, or bitch
gently pulling on the membranes, at the same time twisting them easily,
will often bring them out without injury to the animal. With the cow it
is different. Here the membranes are “buttoned” on in tufts, and the
pulling, and especially the twisting, usually makes matters worse and
injures the uterus.

After removing the membranes there always remains in the uterus a
quantity of fluid, which should be washed out with water a little cooler
than the blood of the animal, adding about a teaspoonful of carbolic
acid or other good antiseptic to each gallon of water and mixing well.
The hands and arms of the operator should be absolutely clean, and
during the operation should be kept covered with carbolized oil or
carbolized soap and water. In mares, especially, care should be taken
not to injure the parts, as inflammation sets in very much quicker than
in the cow. Several gallons of the above solution should be injected as
soon as the condition is noticed, and a warm bran mash fed to the animal
occasionally will help her general health.


=ANEMIA.=--A deficiency of red blood corpuscles. The animal is scanty of
flesh, hide bound and in a general run-down and debilitated condition.
The disease is sometimes called hollow horn. Treatment consists of
better food and care. The feed should be of a nature such as will enrich
the blood and build up the system. Food of a succulent nature, like
roots, green grass, or ensilage, will help out. A tonic, made as
follows, will be helpful: Two teaspoonfuls of sulphate of iron, 1
teaspoonful of powdered nux vomica, and 4 tablespoonfuls of ground
gentian root. Add this to the food each day for a week or ten days.


=ANTHRAX, OR CHARBON.=--An acute, infectious disease of plant-eating
animals, which, under favorable conditions, attacks flesh-eating animals
as well. It is caused by a microbe which enters the circulating blood
and by multiplication therein causes its rapid destruction, and the
death of the animal. The disease is as old as human history. It exists
in all countries and in all latitudes. It was formerly very destructive
to human life, as well as to animals. There is no disease which attacks
more different kinds of animals than anthrax, nor one which is more
deadly. Also, there is no disease which is harder to deal with from the
sanitary point of view; nor harder to stamp out. The reasons for this
will be shown later on.

Soil is the prime factor in preserving and propagating the microbe, when
it is naturally wet, impermeable, and rich in decomposing animal and
vegetable matter. The microbe of anthrax may enter the body by several
channels. It may be taken in with the food or drink. It may be breathed
into the lungs. It may enter through abraded surfaces on the skin. It
may be inoculated into the body by biting insects.

There are several forms of the disease and these are determined by the
modes of entrance of the virus. One form, which occurs especially in
sheep and cattle, at the commencement of an outbreak, and which is
characterized by the suddenness of its onset and its high degree of
fatality, is known as the apoplectic, or fulminant form. Without showing
any previous symptoms, an animal will suddenly be seized with loss of
appetite, trembling, uneasiness, irregularity of movements, difficult
breathing, blueness of the nostrils, bellowing, convulsions and
hemorrhages from the natural openings. Death may occur in a few minutes
or in four or five hours.

Another type is known as anthrax fever, or internal anthrax. Here we
have distinct symptoms, the most important being high fever of from
three to four degrees, excitability and restlessness. Blood may ooze in
drops from the nose, eyes, or ears, and from inside of the forearm or
thigh, in sheep. There will be trembling, prostration, numbness of the
loins, thirst, grinding of the teeth, colicky pains, bloating, bloody
discharges, palpitation of the heart, difficult breathing, blueness of
the visible mucous membranes, jerking of the muscles of the back and
neck, and rolling of the eyes. The animal will die in comatose state, or
in convulsions, and death will occur in sheep in about a day. Cattle
will live from two to five days, and horses from one to six days.

A third form is external anthrax, which manifests itself in swelling of
the tongue, throat, rectum, and skin in cattle; and of the tongue,
throat, neck, shoulders, withers, flank, or thigh in horses. These
swellings have a firm, doughy feeling, are not painful generally, and
show a marked tendency to gangrene. They never suppurate. If cut (this
should never be done), they discharge a pale, straw-colored liquid. In
this may be found the microbe.

The rapidity with which putrefaction occurs in an anthrax carcass is
very marked. Another characteristic is, the blood loses its property of
clotting, is dark and tarry, and does not become light in color by
contact with air, like normal blood. In fulminant cases, however, these
characters are not so well marked. Other signs of the disease, if a
farmer should be so unfortunate as to open an anthrax carcass and
thereby spread the infection on his farm, will be great enlargement of
the spleen, or milt, and also of the liver. Bloody patches in the
tongue, throat, lungs, stomach, and intestines, caul, skin, and muscles,
or in fact in almost any part of the body, will be plainly visible.


=The Management of the Sick Animal= and disposal of the carcass are the
most important procedures in an outbreak of anthrax, from a sanitary
standpoint. Medicinal treatment is of little value. A vaccine has been
discovered that is very effective in preventing the disease. This has
been used very successfully in both this and European countries. If a
case of anthrax is suspected, call your veterinarian at once. The
disease will not pass through the air from a sick animal to a healthy
one, but the discharges which invariably occur during the progress of
the disease all contain the microbe, and everything soiled by them is
infectious material and capable of spreading the disease.

When an animal is infected, remove at once to the burial lot and tie it
near the place it is to be buried, to save handling and scattering the
infection. When it dies, dig the grave. Then saturate the animal with
kerosene or coal oil and set it afire. By means of ropes tied around the
fetlocks turn the animal, saturate the other side and fire that, and
also the soles of the feet. When every hair has been burned off,
dissolve a one-pound carton of chlorinated lime (freshly opened) in
sufficient water to make a fluid that will just pour from the cup. Fill
the nostrils with this, also the mouth and eyes, which should be pried
open with a stick dipped in solution. Saturate some cotton or rags with
the lime, and plug up the nostrils or mouth. Treat the rectum likewise.
Turn the animal into its grave, sprinkle the ground on which it has
stood and laid with a strong solution of chlorinated lime, and shovel
the top layers of this soil into the grave. Follow this with the grave
soil, banking it up, as in human graves. In cases where the animal is
found dead, the same method is to be pursued, except that the animal is
hauled to the grave on a sled (never dragged over the ground). In these
cases, also, the place where it died must be disinfected by the same
means, after hauling out all loose material and burning the same, as
near as possible to the place where the animal died. It would also be
necessary to disinfect the sled and all tools which came in contact with
the carcass.


=APOPLEXY.=--A ruptured blood vessel in the brain; usually causes
unconsciousness, at least for a time. The control of certain muscles is
lost and a general dullness prevails over the animal. In case the
apoplectic attack runs a favorable course, the muscles come more or less
under control again and the patient in time may recover. It is in rare
cases only, however, that animals recover to an extent to be worth much
after being affected with apoplexy. Fortunately the disease in animals
is rare.


=AZOTURIA, OR MONDAY MORNING DISEASE.=--This is a very peculiar
affection of the horse, in which the animal shows a special form of
lameness upon exercise, after having remained idle for a day or two. The
cause is not definitely known, and yet the circumstances under which the
disease develops are rather constant, such, for instance, as an animal
in vigorous condition, fed liberally upon nitrogenous feed, remaining
idle over Sunday, a holiday or at other times. Upon being taken out the
following morning the animal usually shows an excess of energy, but
before going far begins to go lame in one or both hind limbs until, if
urged further, becomes completely paralyzed behind, going down and
unable to rise. He also shows considerable pain, as though he might be
suffering from some form of colic, with a profuse sweating. On reaching
this point the animal usually ceases to void the urine, which, when
drawn, appears a very dark brown or coffee color. The pulse and
breathing are somewhat accelerated, and frequently there is considerable
nervous excitement. The muscles of the loin and thigh are tense and
rigid.

The treatment should begin as soon as the lameness shows itself. After a
few hours of rest, the distress will be over. The more exercise given
the animal after the lameness begins, the more severe the trouble, and
the more energetic means of treatment required. In a case showing signs
of nervous excitement, it should receive 2 tablespoonfuls of bromide of
potassium every three or four hours until becoming quiet. Sweating
should be induced by blanketing the animal well, preferably using
blankets wrung out of hot water and covered with a dry one. Allow all
the water the animal will drink and give it 4 tablespoonfuls sweet
spirits of niter three times a day if bladder is not paralyzed. If
unable to void the urine, the bladder must be emptied three times daily.
A laxative or purgative should be given early in the disease. If the
animal remains somewhat stiff, give a teaspoonful in the feed twice a
day of the following: Powdered nux vomica, 4 teaspoonfuls; powdered
sulphate of iron, 6 teaspoonfuls; powdered gentian root, 6
teaspoonfuls.


=BARRENNESS.=--Failure to breed is usually due to an acid secretion of
the genital organs, to the germs of contagious abortion, retention of
the afterbirth, or to an abnormal condition of the sexual organs of
either the male or female. The acid secretion of the genital organs
prevents conception by destroying the semen of the male; the germs of
contagious abortion set up a catarrhal inflammation and discharge, which
also prevents conception; retention of the afterbirth, whether it be
removed by force or permitted to slough away, usually leaves the womb in
a diseased and catarrhal condition, effecting a discharge; impotency may
be due to excessive use of the male, or to advancing age in both male
and female.

Any unnatural discharge irritates and scalds the mouth of the womb so
that when the discharge ceases the mouth of the womb heals, and it is
impossible to make a cow or mare breed without mechanical interference.
This kind of treatment is conducive to fertility by increasing the blood
supply to the part. Mechanical contrivances are now on the market for
the purpose of dilating the mouth of the womb. These increase the
probability of pregnancy. If the womb be opened just before service,
many troublesome cases can be corrected. This is done by inserting the
oiled hand and arm into the vagina, finding the opening into the womb,
and gradually dilating it by inserting one or more fingers until the
passage is open and free.


=BIG HEAD.=--Just why bones become soft and frequently are absorbed in
normal animals is not known, unless it is due to an absence of some
essential bone constituent in the food or water. The disease shows that
the bone is absorbed and its structure softened. As a consequence, the
bone enlarges, becomes spongy and light.

The disease usually starts as a swelling in the head, hence the name.
Often the lower jaws are enlarged, and, as the disease progresses, the
legs become affected. At the same time the animal loses weight. The
treatment consists of nourishing foods, rich in the mineral
constituents. Better consult a veterinarian when the disease is first
noticed.


=BIG JAW OF CATTLE.=--See Actinomycosis.


=BIG KNEE.=--Often cattle show large bunches over the knees. These may
be soft or hard. In cattle these big knees are caused by hard floors, in
lying down and getting up. Big knee in horses is a little different,
being more in the nature of spavin or ringbone, and in this case
occurring at the knee joints. In cattle the bunch may be localized in
the flesh and skin. With horses, it is an attack on the bony structure.
When first noticed a blister may be used.


=BIG LEG.=--See Lymphangitis.


=BITTER MILK.=--Frequently germs get into the udder, and, as a result,
bitter milk or blue milk or bad milk results. Sometimes the bad taste of
milk is due to the odor in the stable or to the food that the cows get
while pasturing. Turnips give a bad taste to the milk, as does garlic or
wild onions. If the bitter taste or the blue milk is due to disease
germs, then the remedy lies in the destruction of these germs. Just
after milking, and each quarter thoroughly emptied, inject a warm
solution of boric acid.


=BLACKHEAD.=--A germ disease affecting turkeys and chickens. It is
characterized by a dark purple appearance in the comb and wattles. Fowls
attacked by the disease show dullness and laziness; at the same time
indigestion disturbances and diarrhœa is observed. The best treatment is
to kill the fowls affected just as soon as they become affected. This
will prevent the disease from spreading. It is advisable to burn the
bodies of the dead so as to prevent the spreading of the germs. Thorough
disinfection is necessary.


=BLACKLEG.=--An infectious disease produced by the blackleg bacillus, a
parasite which lives and propagates in the soil of infected districts
and in the bodies of diseased animals. Certain kinds of soil are very
favorable to the existence of the parasite, and such, when once
infected, easily remain so permanently and thus constitute the source of
the disease. Years ago blackleg was regarded as a form of anthrax. This
has been proved erroneous, however, for blackleg and anthrax are two
distinct and independent diseases, each being caused by a specific germ.
One diseased animal does not transmit the disease directly to a healthy
one. When caused, it is the result of self-inoculation, that is, by the
germ entering a wound in the skin or mucous membrane of the body,
produced on the legs while the animals are roaming over the fields, or
at the mouth while grazing; these are the places by which the blackleg
germs get into the system.

An animal dying of blackleg is fairly alive with germs, which remain in
virulent condition for a long time. It behooves the farmer, therefore,
to completely destroy this kind of dead; not by burying, for then the
germs remain in the soil. The best way is to burn the animal right on
the spot where it died. If the animal is moved to another place, the
infection is spread, thereby, and not only the death place, but the
grass over which the animal has been moved, should be thoroughly
disinfected that no germs may survive. The disease is characterized in
the appearance of large swellings on various parts of the body, usually
on one of the upper portions of the legs, and never below the hock or
knee joints. Swellings vary in size, and are always formed by the
presence of gas that has collected in the tissue just beneath the skin.
This gas is a product of the germ. You will notice a peculiar crackling
sound when you pass your hand over these swellings. When punctured with
a knife these swellings emit a bloody fluid possessing a disagreeable
and sickening odor.

Associated with the disease are loss of appetite, high fever and
lameness. Death follows just a few days from the time of attack. So far
no medicinal treatment for cure has been discovered. Stock should not be
admitted to infected regions. The only safe practice in regions where
blackleg is prevalent is in the use of protective inoculation or
vaccination. Such vaccination renders the animals immune, and even if
attacked, there is almost no appearance of the disease at all.


=Using Blackleg Vaccine.=--The blackleg vaccine now so well known is
made from diseased flesh taken from a calf that has died from blackleg.
This flesh, after being dried and powdered, is then properly prepared
and injected into the animal. There are two kinds--a weak and a strong
vaccine and single and double vaccine. The single vaccine requires but
one inoculation. The latter is believed to be superior and gives better
protection. The vaccine is usually available from the state experiment
stations, or can be obtained through your veterinarian. About the only
skill required in doing the work is in having the instruments
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. A hypodermic syringe is used and the
injection made on the underside of the tail, a few inches from the tip,
or just beneath the skin of the neck or shoulder. The point of the
syringe should not puncture the muscle at all; simply pick up the skin
and draw it away from the muscle and admit the fluid in the loose space
between the two.

When vaccinated, the treatment is supposed to last about a year. If
calves are vaccinated the operation should be repeated at about the age
of yearling. Two periods of vaccination are suggested: when turned to
pasture in the spring or when turned to dry food in the fall. Full
directions as to the use of vaccines always accompany the preparations
and further detail is unnecessary here.

Preventive medicines cannot be relied upon, although a common one is
used throughout the West, made as follows: 4 ounces of sulphur, 1 ounce
of saltpeter, 2 pounds of sulphate of iron, and 1 pound of air-slaked
lime. After being thoroughly pulverized and mixed, this is added to
one-third of a gallon of common salt and used in the place of salt.


=BLADDER, STONE IN.=--See Concretions or Calculi in Urinary Organs.


=BLIND STAGGERS.=--See Staggers.


=BLOATING IN CATTLE.=--This disease, sometimes called hoven, is
characterized by the distention of the paunch or rumen, and is due to
the accumulation of gas. It most frequently occurs when cattle or sheep
are pastured on clover or alfalfa, especially if it is moist just after
a rain, or when dew is on the ground, and when not accustomed to fresh
green food. I have known of many cases where cattle have bloated from
eating alfalfa hay during the winter season.

There is no mistaking the disease. The animal shows pain, goes off to
itself, and breathes with difficulty. Colic is often associated with
bloating. The most characteristic symptom, however, is the excessive
swelling due to the gas. The bloating is noticed even over the back of
the animal, the gas continues to form, and, unless relief is secured,
the animal will choke and die as the result. Or some suppression of the
vital processes will occur, even rupturing, with the same fatal ending.

[Illustration: WHERE TO TAP IN BLOATING

Insert the trocar and canula, or if these are not available a knife may
be used. Make the puncture downward and forward and plunge the
instrument into the rumen.]

Bloating may take one or two forms; a mild case in which recovery
gradually follows, and a very severe form, where the only salvation is
in tapping to release the gas. If it is an ordinary case of bloating,
not very severe, ordinary remedies will give relief. Turpentine in doses
of 8 or 10 tablespoonfuls is good. Some use 4 tablespoonfuls of
hyposulphide of soda dissolved in water, with excellent results. Some
veterinarians give doses consisting of 4 tablespoonfuls of aromatic
spirits of ammonia in water as a drench. Ginger is frequently given, as
much as 4 tablespoonfuls diluted in warm water as a drench. To keep the
animal moving about is excellent.

In severe cases it is advisable to tap with the trocar and canula.
Indeed, tapping is the last resort if you would save the animal. These
are inserted on the left side of the skin and pushed into the rumen or
paunch, the incision being made about half way between the point of the
hip and the last rib. In introducing the trocar push in and down.

After the insertion is made, the trocar is withdrawn and the canula is
left in to furnish an opening through which the gas can escape. In case
the canula gets clogged with partially digested feed, insert the trocar
so as to push away the material and withdraw it again. If the trocar and
canula are not available, then use a pocket knife. Of course, be careful
that the incision is not made too large.

Just a few simple precautions are suggested here as a prevention of this
trouble. There is always danger from bloating when cattle or sheep are
turned into green pastures, especially when not accustomed to such feed
and especially when wet. It is advisable, therefore, to keep stock from
the pasture until later in the day when the dew has disappeared. Stock
should have their regular morning feed just as usual before being turned
on the pasture. They will have less greedy appetites, will not like to
gorge themselves, and hence the trouble will not be brought on.


=BLOOD POISONING.=--When blood poisoning results from the entrance of
bacteria into the circulation, it is termed septic infection. This means
that the disease may be communicated to a healthy animal by inoculation.
Thus, an operator in making a post portem examination may bring on blood
poisoning because of an accidental prick of the skin. An animal may step
on a nail or get a splinter in a muscle or under the skin, and become
self-inoculated, in time becoming affected with septic infection.
Consequently bacteria are the direct inducing factors. The chemical
poisons produced as a result of the work of these bacteria, as those of
putrefaction, may induce what is known as septicæmia. On the other hand
where pus is produced, as in the abscesses which follow upon neglected
wounds in joints, a form of blood poisoning is produced known as pyæmia.
In either case blood poisoning may result, become very serious and may
cause the death of the victim.

At first chills may be noticed, then a rise of temperature, quick
respiration, rapid but weak pulse, and much prostration. All the time
the appetite is disappearing, until it becomes lost. The mucous
membranes of the eyes and nose take on a yellowish, red tint often
showing spots or blotches of blood and the tongue becomes coated and
clammy.

Quick treatment is necessary in every case of blood poisoning. As soon
as noticed, the source should be treated with disinfectants, thereby
arresting the supply of morbid matter. A strict employment of
antiseptics, so as to destroy the bacteria, is the first essential. We
look upon the prick from a rusty nail, or wound from a wire fence, or a
dirty stable splinter, as matters of frequent occurrence, yet a great
deal of danger lurks among these. They should be avoided as much as
possible and in all cases immediately treated. As soon as the poison is
admitted to the blood or tissue, the disease germs multiply and soon are
present in great numbers. Had the wound been cleansed with an antiseptic
like carbolic acid in the beginning, it would have been a simple matter
and the poison would have been neutralized, and the ingress of the
invaders made unattractive, if not altogether impossible.

In all cases of blood poisoning, look to a systematic and constant
application of suitable lotions to the injured parts, to careful
nursing, and to nourishing food. If the appetite has completely
departed, it is often advisable to force food like eggs and milk into
the stomach, so that the strength of the patient may never be dissipated
or weakened. With this treatment should go pure fresh air, cleanliness
and much sunshine. It usually is advisable to call a veterinarian as
early as possible.

[Illustration: BOG SPAVIN

The bulging outward of the soft tissues of the hock joint is due to the
secretion of joint oil or lubricating liquid in abnormal amounts.]


=BLOODY MILK.=--Sometimes, just after calving, bloody milk is observed.
The cause is generally due to a rupture of the small blood vessels in
the vicinity of the cells that secrete the milk. It may be due to a tiny
accident of some kind or it may be the result of disease, localized in
the udder. Bathing the udder with hot water will prove helpful and,
until the milk is normal, frequent milkings are desirable. If the
condition prevails for any length of time and the cow is not a very good
one, it is just as well to fatten her and send her to the butcher.


=BLOODY URINE.=--A condition of the urine peculiar to certain diseases
like Texas fever in cattle and azoturia in horses. In the latter disease
the urine is quite turbid and dark in color, sometimes almost black.


=BOG SPAVIN.=--A round, smooth tumor at the front and on the inside of
the hock. It is the result of sprains, bruises, or other injuries. When
these injuries occur, too much joint oil is secreted, causing a bulging
of the ligament. Lameness seldom accompanies a bog spavin. If lameness
be present other structures are certain to be affected, and some pain
and heat will be noticed, together with a stiffness of the joint.

Treatment consists of applications of cold water to the affected parts
and a lotion made of 2 tablespoonfuls of acetate of lead in a quart of
water. A blister made of 1 teaspoonful biniodide of mercury and 4
tablespoonfuls of lard rubbed in a little with the fingers and repeated
in ten days or two weeks and continued for some months will correct the
trouble. Wash the part having received the blister twenty-four hours
after application. It is also advisable to tie the horse’s head while
the blister is on, so that he cannot bite the part.


=BONE SPAVIN.=--See Spavin.


=BOT FLIES OR BREEZE FLIES.=--The larvæ or grub of all common bot flies
are thick, fleshy grubs and pass their life in some portion of the body.
When they are fully developed they leave the body by some route and bore
into the ground, where they go through another stage of their
development known as the pupa stage. When this stage is completed they
crawl out of the ground as a fly ready to deposit eggs.


=Horse Bot Fly.=--Everyone is familiar with the common nit fly and the
yellow nit that is attached to the hair on almost all parts of the
horse, but especially on the chest and legs. The young larvæ or even the
egg may be transferred from these regions of the body into the mouth by
the horse biting these parts. The grub passes into the stomach where it
attaches itself to the mucous lining and continues its development. The
bot is not so dangerous as it is popularly supposed to be. They may,
when attached in large numbers to the right side of the stomach,
interfere with digestion and be responsible for some of the digestive
disorders and colics. They are uniformly present in the stomach of all
horses that are kept in the open where flies can get at them. A
carefully groomed animal may be free from them. The eggs may be
destroyed by rubbing the body with a rag wet with kerosene. One of the
most common remedies for bots, and at the same time the most useless, is
a mixture of molasses and milk. Bots are hard to dislodge from the
stomach until they have completed their development there and pass out
of their own accord. Half-ounce doses of turpentine three hours apart
until three doses are given, followed by an ounce of powdered aloes as
a physic, is a good remedy and easily administered. Mix the turpentine
with half a pint of milk or gruel and give on an empty stomach. Carbon
bisulphide is a good remedy. Take two drachms or one-fourth of an ounce
of this and shake with a pint of cold water and drench. Repeat this
every two hours until an ounce of bisulphide is given, then give a
physic of aloes. These remedies should be given on an empty stomach.

[Illustration: HORSE BOTS IN STOMACH

The bot fly lays its eggs on the hair of the horse. These, taken into
the stomach, hatch out and give rise to horse bots or young maggots that
attach themselves to the walls of the stomach. After becoming grown they
loosen themselves and pass out with the feces.]


=Bot-Fly of Cattle or Warbles.=--It is now believed that eggs are
deposited near the feet and that the grub is taken into the mouth and
becomes partially developed in the digestive tract. It then burrows
through the tissue until it reaches the region of the back. The only
treatment that will amount to much is to destroy the grub as it is
developing under the skin. If farmers and stockmen will systematically
do this they can soon lessen the damage done. The heel fly annoys
cattle, and the grub, when it escapes from the back, leaves a hole in
the best part of the hide, causing loss in this way. After the grubs are
in the back no treatment helps the animal very much; but the grub can be
killed, thus preventing their developing into flies that would annoy
other cattle. The grubs may be squeezed out and destroyed. Mercurial
ointment may be rubbed through the hole and kill the grub, or
chloroform, or creoline, may be injected into the grub with a hypodermic
syringe. It does not require very much time to look after the number of
cattle usually found on a farm.


=The Bot-Fly of Sheep= is a very troublesome pest at times, and always
causes trouble and annoyance to the flock when present, and occasionally
causes considerable financial loss. The fly attacks sheep during the
warm months, July and August generally being the worst. The presence of
fly in the flock is easily told by the behavior of the sheep. The fly
looks much like a house fly, only it is longer and it always attempts to
lay its eggs just inside of the opening of the nose. As soon as the fly
begins to get near the nostril the sheep will begin to run, will hold
their noses close to the ground, and frequently huddle together as
closely as possible for protection. When the fly does succeed in
depositing the larvæ it begins immediately to work its way up the cavity
of the nose and finally gets into the small cavities in the head, where
development goes on. It is during this period of development in the head
that most of the damage is done. As the grubs grow larger a discharge
from the nostril is noticed, which may soon become very thick and
sticky, gumming up the nostrils and making breathing difficult. The
sheep will often carry their heads low, but will frequently raise their
heads and point their noses straight up.

The treatment may be either preventive or surgical. The first is within
the reach of everyone owning sheep. Where only a few sheep are owned
each individual should be caught and a mixture of tar and lard, or oil
of tar and lard, applied to the nostril with a brush. This can be done
in a short time and should be repeated every ten days or two weeks
during the warm months. Narrow salt troughs may be made and the edges
smeared with tar so that the sheep will get tar on their noses when they
take salt. Turpentine may be applied high up in the nostril by means of
a feather. Begin the preventive treatment early in the spring or
whenever you know by the action of the sheep that the fly is bothering
them, and you will have better success than to wait until the sheep are
affected and undertake to cure them.


=BOTS.=--See Bot Flies.


=BROKEN WIND.=--See Heaves.


=BRONCHITIS.=--A common disease of domestic animals attacking the
bronchial tubes. It may be chronic, but is usually acute, and may affect
one side or both. The most frequent causes of bronchial catarrh are
colds. A sudden cooling of a heated body by drenching, by the breathing
of cold damp air, may all bring on the disorder. Dust, smoke or gas,
when inhaled, often produces the same trouble. Acute bronchitis usually
sets in with a sudden rise of the temperature of the body, and the
animal seems to have a chill. This may be quite violent at times. The
cough is noticed very much as with people, being short, dry, and husky.
Later on, as the disease progresses, a frothy mucus follows the cough.
Associated with the disease is a loss of appetite, constipation, and
pains in the chest and rattling in the chest and throat. A favorite
position of the horse is standing and of other stock that of lying down.
Good care is essential in the treatment. That means, with good
treatment, dust, smoke, and bad air are to be severely avoided. Plenty
of good ventilation, but no draft; and warm, well-lighted quarters are
very desirable. The animal should be blanketed to be kept warm in the
early stages and a compress placed over the chest, with blankets over
the compress. Frequent changing of this compress is desirable, say a
change every hour or two. When the animal is suffering from a chill,
stimulants are excellent. A tablespoonful of whiskey in a pint of water
and given as a drench every half hour or hour will be helpful.

After the chill period is passed, small doses of tincture of aconite,
say 10 to 15 drops, in a little water as a drench will assist in
discharging the mucus. When the animal has become at ease, a mustard
plaster applied to the lungs will help you somewhat. From now on the
treatment should be good nursing and good food. Boiled flaxseed and
gruel will be very helpful. A very helpful preparation may be made of
the following: Nitrate of potash or saltpeter, tartar emetic, ground
gentian root, equal parts. A half pound or pound in all should be mixed
thoroughly, and then a teaspoonful given three times each day. When all
danger is passed, continue the careful handling and allow two or three
weeks’ complete rest.


=BUNCHES.=--Bunches are most generally enlargements of the bone. They
are most serious in the region of a joint. They are caused, as a rule,
by some injury, bruise, or wound. When first noticed they should be
treated with a blister to insure a hasty absorption of the enlarged
parts.


=BURNS.=--Occasionally animals are burned or scalded so badly as to
subject them to considerable pain. This may be relieved by the use of a
strong solution of common baking soda. Following the use of this, apply
an ointment made of one part of carbolic acid to 50 parts of vaseline.
If vaseline is not available, then use in its place linseed oil.


=CAKED BAG.=--See Mammitis.


=CAKED UDDER.=--A diseased condition of the udder, with the secretion of
milk altered, the udder hot, dry, and caked, and the glands inflamed.
The trouble may be due to external injury, to germs entering the teats
or to the milk being kept for too long a time in the udder. As soon as
noticed the udder should be bathed in hot water and massaged for several
minutes. After being dried with a cloth rub on a salve made of 2
tablespoonfuls of gum camphor dissolved in 12 tablespoonfuls of lard. At
the same time give 4 tablespoonfuls of saltpeter morning and night for
two or three days. See also Mammitis.


=CALF CHOLERA.=--When a new-born calf comes into the world weak, puny,
and listless, and dies in a few hours after scouring, bawling, and
blatting and has sunken eyes and bloated belly soon after death, the
disease by stockmen is called “calf cholera.” Many calves so affected
are really “living abortions.” They have just enough life at birth to
exist a few hours and show the symptoms described, and such calves are
usually the offspring of cows that, during pregnancy, have been
incompletely nourished upon timothy or swale hay, or coarse fodder,
without an adequate supply of other foods to balance the ration; or
similar calves may come from fat, flabby, corn-stuffed, beef-bred cows.

The trouble may be prevented by proper feeding of the pregnant cow, but
there is no cure. A majority of such cases, however, are due to germ
infection. Cows affected with contagious abortion may produce affected
calves; the afterbirth and navel cord are invaded by the germs in such
cases and the calf is improperly nourished in the womb. In other
instances, calf cholera is due to filth germs entering the calf’s system
by way of the raw navel cord stump at birth, or the mouth when the calf
nurses from a manure-contaminated udder.

Prevent infective cases by providing a clean, fresh-bedded, disinfected,
whitewashed, sunlighted, ventilated pen for the new-born calf, and
immediately wet its navel with a 1/500 solution of corrosive sublimate
and repeat the application twice daily until the cord dries up, drops
off and no raw spot remains. Also wash the hind parts of the cow and her
udder with a two per cent solution of coal tar disinfectant before the
calf is allowed to suck for the first time and repeat the washing twice
daily for at least a week. Isolate affected calves. Bury or burn the
dead.


=CALF SCOURS.=--See White Scours.


=CANCER.=--Malignant growths, the cause or causes of which are not
known; nor can it be said the disease is infectious. While a very
serious disease among human beings, it is, fortunately, however, more
rare among farm animals. The only treatment worth while is in surgical
removal of the growths. If this be done when the tumors are first
noticed and when they are small, their further appearance may not
result. It is a good plan, if the growths persist in presenting
themselves, to eliminate the affected animal from the herd. With cattle,
it is possible to prepare them for market long before any cancer growths
may reappear, and in this way the full market value may be secured with
no danger when consumed.


=CAPPED ELBOW.=--Frequently horses, in lying down, press the foot or the
shoe against the elbow. This, in time, causes inflammation and ends in a
tumor or shoe boil. The diseased condition is difficult to repair, as
there is little flesh or muscle at the joint of the elbow where the
trouble starts. Treatment consists of opening the boil and allowing the
fluid to escape. In case the swelling is hot and painful, an application
of lead acetate will prove comforting and helpful. In preparing the
lotion, use 2 tablespoonfuls of acetate of lead to a quart of water.
There is no objection to injecting a little of this into the opening. An
injection of a little tincture of iodine once a day into the opening is
desirable also. In treating cases of this kind, it is a good practice to
wrap about the horse’s foot a pad of straw or hay for cushioning the
foot. This prevents the wound from being further bruised, otherwise the
cure may be greatly delayed, if not indefinitely postponed.

[Illustration: A VICTIM OF TUBERCULOSIS

This cow, reacting to the tubercular test, was killed. The bottom
picture shows the extent to which tuberculosis had affected her lungs.
At least ten per cent of the cattle in the United States have this
dreaded and destructive disease.]


=CAPPED HOCK.=--An inflammation resulting in a separation of the cap
from the point of the bone of the hock. Cases of this kind are the
results of kicks or bruises. In the early stage, use 2 tablespoonfuls
of lead acetate in a quart of water and bathe the injured part. When
there is no longer any temperature, apply a blister composed of 1
teaspoonful of biniodide of mercury and 6 tablespoonfuls of lard. Apply
this every week or ten days for several months.

[Illustration: EXTERIOR POINTS OF THE HORSE

1 Lip, 2 Nostril, 3 Forehead, 4 Poll, 5 Cheek, 6 Ear, 7 Mane, 8 Neck,
9 Shoulder, 10 Point or Shoulder, 11 Breast, 12 Forearm, 13 Arm,
14 Knee, 15 Cannon, 16 Fetlock, 17 Pastern, 18 Foot, 19 Withers,
20 Back, 21 Side, 22 Underline, 23 Flank, 24 Croup, 25 Tail, 26 Haunch,
27 Thigh, 28 Stifle, 29 Hock, 30 Point of Hock, 31 Cannon, 32 Foot,
33 Coronet, 34 Fetlock, 35 Pastern]

[Illustration: CASTRATION]


=CAPPED KNEE.=--An enlarged condition of the knee most commonly found in
cattle. It is caused by cattle getting up and down on hard floors. It is
usually seen in stables where stanchions are used. A baggy tumor forms
at the front and just below the knee. In some instances this tumor
becomes very large and the cow walks about or moves with great
difficulty. Where hard floors are covered with bedding, no trouble of
this kind results. Applications of hot water are excellent. Liniment is
also very good. Where the tumor has long existed and is stubborn an
opening should be made at the bottom so that the fluid may be
discharged. A little tincture of iodine injected into the opening once a
day is good and at the same time an application of iodine rubbed over
the outside will assist in reducing the trouble. Use one part of iodine
to eight parts of lard and continue this treatment for a month or two.


=CASTRATION.=--The removal of the testicles from male animals.
Castration is practiced upon all the domestic animals. Only those male
animals possessing desirable characteristics are retained entire. The
operations are generally performed when the male animals become
troublesome. In horses the time is usually at one to three years old; in
cattle one to three months old; sheep at one to four months and pigs two
to four months old. Dogs, as a rule, become worthless if castrated.
Cats grow to an enormous size when castrated.


=Suggestions About the Operation.=--In the castration of all the
domestic animals some general suggestions will be beneficial. (1) Secure
the animal so he cannot injure himself or the attendants. (2) Do the
castration during the early spring. (3) Give the animal exercise after
castration. (4) Boil the instruments before operating, using warm water
and any good hand soap. (5) Disinfect the skin over the scrotum before
operating with corrosive sublimate 1/1000. (6) Wash the hands of the
operator with soap and water, then disinfect with corrosive sublimate.
(7) Great care should be exercised that no corrosive sublimate be left
that stock may drink, as it is a deadly poison.

When the instruments have been boiled (sharp castrating knife and
emasculator), cast (throw) the animal as carefully as possible. Secure
the hind legs so they will not hinder the operator. The operator having
his hands clean and the scrotum washed and both his hands disinfected,
and also the region to be operated upon, the animal is ready for the
operation. The lower testicle is grasped with the left hand and with the
right hand an incision is made over the testicle, down to the testicle.
The testicle is pulled upon until the cord is seen. Then the emasculator
is used to crush the cord. This emasculator should be placed on the cord
as high up as possible. Some like their horses castrated proud. This
consists in leaving part of the testicle. This last method is not safe,
as it allows the testicle to become infected and form what is commonly
known as water seeds. A tumor grows on the cord and may become the size
of a man’s head.

After the testicle is removed, then enlarge the first incision (cut)
that was made through the skin so as to give plenty drainage. This
incision should be about eight inches long for horses. By having a large
incision the upper part can heal first, and there will be good drainage
until the scrotum entirely heals. If possible turn the castrated horse
out to pasture after the operation, and it will exercise sufficiently to
keep the parts from swelling. Do not keep the animal in a dirty stable
after it is castrated, as there is so much danger from infection in the
dirty horse stable. If the horse is broken it can be put to light work a
week after the castration.

Bulls do not need to be thrown to be castrated. The incision is made
over each testicle, and the operation carried out in the same way as
with the horse. Bulls are not so susceptible to infection as the horse.


=CATARRH.=--Commonly known as a cold, catarrh is recognized as an
inflamed state of the upper portions of the air passages, with more or
less discharge from the mucous membranes. The eyes often sympathize with
this deranged condition, with a watery state as the result. The causes
of catarrh or colds in animals are very much the same as those causing
the same disturbance in human beings; as with people, so with animals,
the malady should be remedied as quickly as possible. Bad air is one of
the most frequently observed causes; consequently pure cold air with
proper blankets to keep the body warm is considered the best treatment
for simple catarrh when unaccompanied with other troubles.

One of the common symptoms is dullness and loss of appetite. The hair
stands out and looks rough, a slight cough may be noticed and sometimes
a rattling is heard in the head. For cattle a mild dose of physic,
consisting of one-half pound Epsom salts and 4 tablespoonfuls of sweet
spirits of niter mixed in a pint of lukewarm water and given as a
drench, is about all that is necessary. If the cold hangs on, mix
together one-half pound of nitrate of potash or saltpeter and one-half
pound of gentian root and give a teaspoonful of this three times a day
until the animal is better. Of course good food should go along with
this treatment. The horse should be fed soft food like bran mashes and
be kept quiet in a well-ventilated stable. If the cold hangs on with
him, mix one-half pound of saltpeter or nitrate of potash, one-half
pound of sulphur, and one-half pound of ground gentian root and give a
teaspoonful morning, noon and night.


=CATTLE SCAB.=--See Scab in Cattle.


=CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS.=--A disease fatal in violent attacks and not
well understood as to cause. It is believed to be non-contagious,
although frequently extensive outbreaks occur, suggesting that it may be
contagious. The symptoms are not well defined, due, perhaps, to the fact
that other diseases are included under the general name. Horses of all
ages of both sexes are affected, and temperament and physical condition
have nothing to do with susceptibility to the disease. Likewise mules
are affected and the mortality among them is equally as great as among
horses. The most acceptable belief as to cause centers around a
bacterial organism that works in the membranes of the brain. However,
some writers attribute the disease to ergot, smuts and molds supposed to
be taken with the food. Moldy corn and moldy hay are believed to be
associated with the disease. The symptoms are staggering gait, partial
or total inability to swallow, various muscular contractions and
delirium.

Treatment is seldom effected, especially in violent cases. Mild forms
frequently respond to cathartics, blisters on the neck, spine and
throat. These give some relief. Small doses of aconite are also believed
to be helpful. Some writers place choking, distemper, grass staggers,
and blind staggers along with this brain disorder.


=CHARBON.=--See Anthrax.


=CHEST FOUNDER.=--See Navicular Disease.


=CHICKEN CHOLERA.=--Chicken or fowl cholera is a germ disease, and
contagious. It attacks poultry of all kinds. Diarrhœa is a prominent
symptom of the disease. Bad food or improper food may aggravate the
trouble, but the germ introduced into the system either in food or
drink, is at the bottom of it. At first the droppings will take on a
whitish color. Diarrhœa will then result. The discharges will then
become thin and watery, to be at times frothy and greenish in
appearance. Fowls thus attacked soon lose their appetites and become
stupid and take on a sickly appearance. The head drops toward the body,
the eyelids fall, and the fowls stand around as if doped. Some recover,
but, unless checked, the flock will be materially injured.

Of course dead fowls must be burned at once and lime and other
disinfectants used to keep the disease from spreading. The well birds
must be kept apart from the infected quarters. Care must be exercised
that infection be not carried either by visitors or attendants from the
sick to the healthy quarters. A common remedy consists of 1 part of
sulphate of iron to 50 parts of water for drinking purposes. Another
common remedy is to mix a tablespoonful of sulphate of iron, 2
tablespoonfuls of dried blood, and 2 tablespoonfuls of tincture of opium
with a pint of water. This is given in the food in doses of 1 or 2
tablespoonfuls of this mixture three or four times a day to each sick
bird.


=CHOKING.=--Horses frequently choke from too rapid eating of oats, and
cattle are very commonly troubled on attempting to swallow apples,
turnips, or small pieces of ear corn. In either of these cases much
distress is occasioned and serious danger. In treating the horse, the
best treatment is to give it a little oil, after which rub the hand up
and down the gullet to scatter the accumulated oats. Sometimes it is
necessary to make an incision in the gullet through which the material
is removed. Better have a veterinarian do this. When food lodges in the
gullet of cattle, suffocation soon follows if it is serious and in the
upper part of the gullet. When such objects have lodged near the stomach
end there is less immediate danger. Of course the first treatment is to
try to force the object down by using the hand, if at all possible. If
this cannot be done a probang should be used. The probang should be very
limber, so as to bend easily, and it should be used with great caution.
Cattle often are killed by the accidental puncture of the gullet as the
probang is pressed down toward the mouth of the stomach. Consequently no
unyielding article like a broom handle or even a buggy whip should be
used. If a regular probang is not available, a rope a little less than
one inch in diameter can be inserted and gently worked down the gullet.
Before using the rope, grease it well and make a knob at the end to be
inserted. This knob can be made of cotton strings or muslin cloth.


=COFFIN JOINT LAMENESS.=--See Navicular Disease.


=COLDS.=--See Catarrh.


=COLIC.=--Colic is an inflammation of the bowels characterized by a
spasmodic contraction of the intestinal walls. It is a very common
disease in horses, and occasionally cattle and lambs are affected with
it. Both the small and large intestines may be afflicted or only one of
them. There are many causes, but feed and water are the controlling
factors. An animal just stopped from hard work and given a large
quantity of cold water, especially after eating, may be quickly
troubled. And the animal hot from work, on drinking very cold water,
often gets colic. Then, too, a change of food, or a change from dry feed
to green food or eating some root crop when the animal is not used to
it, may bring on the disease.

Then, again, some horses and cattle are more given to colic than others.
Some individuals are never troubled, and others are almost constantly
under its influence. If much inflammation sets in, a very serious case
is on your hands. Two kinds of colic are known--the spasmodic, a
contraction, commonly known as cramps of the bowels; and wind or
flatulent colic or bloating. Some authorities add a third, and call it
worm colic.


=Spasmodic Colic.=--This kind of colic is first noticed when the horse
begins to paw with his forefeet, cringes, bends his head around as if
looking at his side, lays on the ground and rolls as if in pain; then he
stands quietly for a while and repeats these performances again. During
the time between the spasms the animal is more at ease and frequently
eats a little. When the spasms come on again the shifting about and the
rolling are repeated. If the cramps are severe the animal breaks out
with sweat. The pulse is accelerated when the spasms are on, ranging
from 60 to 65 beats a minute. If inflammation has set in, the pulse
instead of rising and falling remains more constant and is high all the
time.

[Illustration: COLIC PAINS

A common attitude with colic. When seized with pains the horse paws,
scrapes the ground with his front feet, stamps and strikes the belly
with the hind ones, lays back his ears and looks around to his flank.]

When the spasms are on, pressing the bowels seems to relieve the pain
and please the animal, but if inflammation is present the pressure seems
to increase the pain. The best treatment is to relieve the pain with an
opiate, and next to obtain a free action of the bowels by a purge. Many
prescriptions have been suggested, among which is the following: 4
tablespoonfuls of sweet spirits of niter, 4 tablespoonfuls of laudanum,
1 tablespoonful of ginger and 1 tablespoonful of common soda. These are
added to a pint of warm water and given as a drench.


=Flatulent Colic.=--This form of colic, though not so acute, is much
more constant than the preceding form. The body is swollen in the region
of the bowels, the gas extending quite generally through the region.
There is also a tendency to inflammation. The pulse will be noticed as
more rapid, and at the same time more feeble, the breathing will be more
pronounced, and the animal less steady on its feet. In treating the
patient it is advisable to unload the rectum with greased hand and arm,
and the admission of warm water with soap in it, is also likely to be
beneficial. A little turpentine mixed with the soap and water is good.
The intestine is to be cleaned out as far as the arm will reach, but a
violent purge is unwise, as that only intensifies the inflammation.
Naturally the first thing is to mildly open the bowels. For this give 15
or 20 tablespoonfuls of linseed oil and 5 or 10 tablespoonfuls of spirit
of turpentine. If the case continues, it is advisable to call a
veterinarian, and it may be necessary to use the trocar and canula. If
the instrument is sterilized, no great risk attaches to the operation,
while immediate relief is secured as the gas passes out through the
tube, and the distention is visibly reduced. An excellent mixture for
this kind of colic consists of 6 tablespoonfuls of chloral hydrate, 6
tablespoonfuls of laudanum, 3 tablespoonfuls of sulphuric ether, 2
tablespoonfuls of turpentine, and 10 tablespoonfuls of ginger. Of this
give 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls in a half pint of warm water and repeat every
half hour for 3 or 4 doses and then place the doses an hour apart until
all danger has passed.

When there is a good deal of gas with considerable swelling an excellent
drench is made of 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered aloes, 4 tablespoonfuls
of spirits of ammonia and 4 tablespoonfuls of sulphuric ether. This
should be mixed with a pint of water and given promptly. In case of
considerable pain use this: 4 to 6 tablespoonfuls of hydrate of chloral
and eight tablespoonfuls of sugar mixed in a pint of water and give as a
drench.


=CONCRETIONS OR CALCULI OF URINARY ORGANS.=--The collection of solid
mineral matter in the urine may become lodged in the kidney, the ureter
(duct leading from the kidney), the bladder or urethra (the duct leading
from the bladder). All animals are more or less subject to these
conditions, and yet are not so affected as they are sometimes thought to
be. Many a case of so-called kidney colic is in reality an affection of
the digestive system. The cause for these mineral accumulations perhaps
varies under different conditions, yet the most common circumstance
under which they occur is during the time when animals are fed
exclusively or largely upon dry feed such as exists in the winter time
where silage is not fed. Wheat bran has been attributed as one of the
most sourceful means of bringing on this trouble. When it is fed with
succulent feeds and an abundance of water allowed these disorders do not
occur.

The symptoms do not differ a great deal from some forms of colic, due to
stomach or intestinal disturbances, especially in the frequent attempts
to empty the bladder. The animal usually shows more or less pain from
the restless condition, looks around at the flank, dribbles his urine
frequently, which is occasionally blood stained. There may be a complete
obstruction of the passages, in which case no urine is voided.

[Illustration: RETENTION OF THE URINE

By means of a catheter the greater portion of the urine can be drawn
off. The operation is shown in the picture.]


=Treatment varies= with the location of the trouble, in which little
can be accomplished when the gravel or stone is located in front of the
bladder. If within the bladder, not obstructing its outlet, it is not
likely to make its presence known. Agents should be given, however, to
overcome the pain and to relieve the frequently existing spasm at point
of obstruction, as far as possible, which may allow passage of stone.
Give 4 tablespoonfuls of laudanum or chloral to a dose and repeat in two
or three hours if any pain or trouble is still indicated. In inducing
the animal to drink liberal quantities of water the condition may be
somewhat relieved by making the urine more watery in character and
possibly dissolving a portion, allowing the remainder to pass along its
course. When the obstruction occurs within the urethra the removal
should be made by incising through the tissues on to or near the
obstruction, removing by forceps and suturing up the wound. A skilled
operator is required for this, hence the veterinarian should be called.


=CONSTIPATION.=--An infrequent movement of the bowels with the dung hard
and dry. The animal is said to be bound up or costive. Bad food,
improper feeding, lack of exercise, all contribute to the trouble.
Treatment is in the line of laxative and succulent food, such as wheat
bran, green grass, silage and linseed oil meal. If the case is one
requiring immediate action give any of the usual purgatives, but do not
continue their use as a regular thing. If green grass is not possible,
nor silage available, give one or two teaspoonfuls of the following
mixture in the food three times a day: Equal parts of ground gentian
root, powdered nux vomica, powdered ginger and sulphur.


=CORNS.=--Small swellings or tumors on the sensitive heel in the
triangular space between the bars and the wall of the heel. These are
found in the fore feet only, and almost always on the inside heel. They
are caused most frequently by bad shoeing or from wearing the shoe for
too long a time. These growths do not always cause lameness, although,
as a rule, they do. They are, however, always sensitive to pressure and
usually appear as tumors of a hard, corny character. Neglected corns are
liable to fester and must then be laid bare by the knife and be
poulticed. Neglect of this treatment results in the matter or pus
finding its way up through the coronet. Thus quittor may result.

Give the foot a careful dressing by paring the heel, and bathe the corn
with a weak carbolic acid solution. After doing this, place a fold of
muslin over the corn and then over all a bran and linseed poultice. A
complete rest from work, hard roads and shoes should now be given the
animal until the corn has entirely disappeared. When the feet are again
shod, leather should be used as a protection. Many corn salves are
recommended, but unless the corn be removed and the pressure taken from
the wound, there can be no cure, even though the tumor is pared away.


=CORNSTALK DISEASE.=--When cattle are allowed to run in stalk fields it
frequently happens that a large per cent die from various causes. All
these troubles are classed under the one term--cornstalk disease. In
some western fields where there is a second growth of cane stalk late in
the fall an early frost will at times develop in the stalk a deadly
poison (hydrocyanic acid), which kills the animal in a very few minutes
after eating it. This poison has not been found in the cornstalk.

In the last year or two some of our state experiment stations have been
investigating several molds which seem to affect not only cattle but
horses as well. These molds grow quite abundantly upon cornstalks,
alfalfa, and other forage crops. The death of a great number of animals
has been traced directly to the feeding of such affected fodder, hay, or
corn. These molds, however, must have a certain amount of moisture for
their growth, and it has been shown that when the feeds have been
properly harvested and sheltered no trouble has resulted. Only in
materials exposed to the weather, allowing the development of these
lower forms of plant life, has serious trouble been found.

In the treatment of these troubles nothing reliable can be given, as the
disease usually comes on without any warning and the animal dies
suddenly. Much of the trouble can be avoided by allowing the animals
only a limited amount of the feed or in the stalk field a few hours only
each day. It is necessary that plenty of pure water should be given
frequently and enough of other roughage to keep the animals from gorging
themselves on the fodder.


=COW POX.=--An infectious disease passed from one cow to another. It
affects herds in all parts of the world and is similar to smallpox in
the human being, only it is not so fatal. When first affected the cow is
feverish, slacks somewhat in the milk flow, and presents little red
pimple-like spots around the teats. In a day or two these become
enlarged and become blisters, containing within a watery fluid, which,
if not broken, dry up themselves and form scabs, leaving the teat in
time perfectly natural. Ordinarily, special treatment is not given.
There is no objection, however, to providing a simple tonic composed of
one-quarter pound saltpeter, one-quarter pound sulphur, and one-quarter
pound ground gentian root. Give a teaspoonful of this night and morning
in a mash. The teats should be bathed, just before milking, with any
common disinfecting solution. If the sores are slow in healing, sweet
oil, to which is added a little carbolic acid, will soon correct the
trouble.


=CRACKED HOOFS.=--See Sand Cracks.


=CRIBBING.=--A habit of biting the manger or other objects, often
sucking in the air at the same time. This bad habit is frequently called
wind sucking. It is the result of a habit formed when young. There is
really no cure when the habit is once formed, but different measures may
be employed to lessen the fault. A broad strap firmly placed around the
neck brings the desired effect with some individuals.


=CRIB SUCKERS.=--This bad habit usually begins in colt days. It may
arise from a sore tooth. The colt, to relieve the feeling, bites the
manger, and in so doing acquires the habit. When hanging on to the
manger, air is sucked in and this frequently brings on colic. The best
treatment is to break up the habit. Examine the mouth first to see if
anything is wrong with the teeth. Muzzle while standing in the stable.
The old cribbers never give up the habit.


=CRAMP COLIC.=--See Colic.

[Illustration: CURB

While common to all varieties of the horse, curbs are most frequently
seen in the lighter breeds and especially in roadsters and trotting
horses.]


=CURB.=--A sprain or injury to the ligament situated on the back part of
the hock joint. Anything that puts too much stress on this part, such as
holding back heavy loads going down hill, or backing up too heavy loads,
or the hind legs slipping too far under the horse’s body, may cause curb
disease. It is also caused by kicks or by the whiffletree striking
against the back of the hock joint.

There will be swelling and heat in the part and lameness. In some cases
there will be swelling, but no lameness. If the swelling is hot and
tender to the touch, mix half an ounce acetate of lead and two ounces
tincture of arnica with one quart of water. Shake up and apply a little
to the swollen part three times a day and continue until the heat and
swelling disappear. If there should be any swelling after the heat and
lameness have disappeared, mix 1 teaspoonful of biniodide of mercury
with 4 tablespoonfuls of lard. Rub on a little with the fingers, let it
remain on for 24 hours, then wash off with warm water and soap and
repeat the blister in three weeks if needed. In cases where there is
swelling, but no heat or lameness, the lotion would be of no use, but
the above blister should be used as directed. In old or long standing
cases of curb, if the animal is not lame, it is best to let it alone, as
medicines would be of no service.


=DIABETES; PROFUSE STALING.=--In man there are two forms of this trouble
seen rather frequently, but among domestic animals only the insipid form
is common. It is often simply a sign of some other disease, but not
infrequently occurs under similar circumstances; such as certain forms
of indigestion, the result of eating musty or damaged feed. The most
characteristic symptom, of course, is the frequent urination of liberal
quantities of urine. Associated with this is usually an unabating
thirst. The animal loses flesh rapidly, the flanks are tucked up, the
coat is dull, languid and staring, and great weakness is shown. If not
relieved, the animal may die from exhaustion. In the second form of
diabetes, the distinguishing feature is the presence of sugar in the
urine.

If in a working animal it should be laid off from work. Search should be
made for the cause of trouble. If any of the food appears suspicious it
should be substituted with wholesome food. To relieve the ardent thirst
and assist recovery, a teaspoonful of the crystals of iodine should be
given in a ball of linseed or other pasty material. It may be desirable
to repeat this in three or four days. Also give in the drinking water 4
tablespoonfuls of bicarbonate of soda three times daily.


=DIARRHOEA.=--See Dysentery.


=DIFFICULT PARTURITION.=--See Obstetrics.


=DIPPING LIVE STOCK.=--There are only two satisfactory methods of
treating animals with a dip. The first is hand treating, where the
number of animals are few and easy to handle. In hand treating the
animal the dip is applied with scrubbing brushes, sponges, etc., and all
parts of the body liable to infection should then be thoroughly and
vigorously rubbed. If hand treating is properly performed it is an
excellent method. The second method consists of immersing the diseased
animals in the dipping solution. There are two forms of vats in use for
this purpose. The cage vat is designed for comparatively few cattle. As
its name implies, it consists of a cage in which the animal is placed
and then lowered into a vat containing the dip. Where a large number of
animals are to be dipped, the swimming vat is very popular. The animals
are forced to pass through the vat, which contains sufficient dip to
completely immerse them when they plunge into the solution.

The coal-tar dips are made from some of the products of the distillation
of coal tar. When mixed with water they form a milky emulsion, having a
strong odor of coal tar. The coal-tar preparations, in addition to
being used as parasiticides, have become very popular disinfectants in
hospitals. These preparations are used with good success on all open
wounds, where a disinfectant is required. In poll evil and fistulous
withers they are extremely valuable, owing to the fact that in addition
to their power as a germicide they have been perfectly safe to place in
the hands of persons not accustomed to handling drugs, because of their
non-poisonous nature. They have been found quite efficient when used in
three per cent solution.


=DISHORNING.=--Some cattle breeds are hornless. Most, however, are not.
Removing the horns is done quickly and is more humane than to permit
them to remain, by which death frequently follows to stock and even to
people. The dishorning machine is intended for animals whose horns are
not removed when young. The simplest method of dishorning is to use a
stick of caustic potash. Apply it to the small horn button when a calf
is a few days old. Moistening this and rubbing the potash over the skin
will permanently destroy the horn tissue and no horns will result.


=DISTEMPER.=--See Strangles.


=DROPSY.=--A condition in which the fluid portion of the blood escapes
from the blood vessels and collects in the body cavities or under the
skin. Any sluggish condition of the blood occasioned by disease or
faulty nutrition may induce this collection in various parts of the
body. Dropsy is, therefore, not a disease, but a symptom of some other
disease. This being the case, treatment depends upon the original
disease, upon the nature of which depends in turn the possibility of
permanent or temporary cure.

A mild attack of dropsy is indicated when the legs of a horse swell up,
due to lack of exercise and poor circulation as occasioned by standing
in the stable. The first thing, of course, is to start better blood
circulation. Hand rubbing is good; bathing with hot water acts
similarly. Any medicine that stimulates the action of the kidneys will
prove helpful. Saltpeter is excellent for this. Use once a day for three
or four days in succession, and give 4 tablespoonfuls at a dose. In
connection with this treatment supply the animal with succulent or
laxative food, that the bowels may be kept free and open. Any of the
tonic condition powders will help.


=DYSTOKIA.=--See Obstetrics.


=ECZEMA.=--An inflammatory, non-contagious disease of the skin in which
eruptions may occur in the form of vesicles, pustules, crusts, scales,
or simple redness. Its principal victims are animals fed rich food, the
penalty being associated with some gastric or intestinal disturbance.
Treatment is both external and internal. The former should be in the
nature of washes for cleanliness and healing. Tar soap is recommended. A
wash made of 4 tablespoonfuls of carbonate of potassium dissolved in a
quart of water is also excellent. After a good rub with this, wash off
with warm water.

If itching causes any distress, prepare a wash consisting of 2
tablespoonfuls of acetate of lead, 8 tablespoonfuls of tincture of opium
and a quart of water. Where scales have formed and the skin is thick and
scurvy, rub in a little with the fingers some biniodide of mercury and
vaseline. Use 2 teaspoonfuls of the mercury and 8 tablespoonfuls of the
vaseline. One application will do the work. If the case is bad, several
parts being affected, treat only one part at a time with the mercury
salve. Be certain to have the animal tied so that he cannot get his
mouth to the treated region.

For internal treatment let the physic come first. For horses, mix 4
tablespoonfuls of aloes, 4 tablespoonfuls of ginger and 4 tablespoonfuls
of soda carbonate dissolved in a pint of boiling water. Let cool to
proper temperature and give as a drench. For cattle, give a pound of
Epsom salts and 4 tablespoonfuls of ginger in water as a drench.
Following the physic should come a good blood tonic. To prepare this,
mix 16 tablespoonfuls each of nitrate of potassium and sulphate of iron.
Give in doses of 1½ tablespoonfuls daily in a bran mash until all is
used.


=DYSENTERY.=--An inflammation of the lining membrane of the large
intestine near the rectum, accompanied with straining, discharge of
blood, and fever. Poisonous and irritating food causes it, stagnant and
foul water favors its development, but any exposure to cold or excessive
heat or overwork may bring it on. In cattle the acute form is attended
with shivering, arching of the back and tenderness about the loins. The
animal grunts, yawns, grinds its teeth, and, at short intervals,
discharges from its bowels a thin, ill-smelling dung mixed with blood
and pus. The thirst is excessive, the animal is dull and stupid, and
loses flesh rapidly. After the disease has gone on a few days, the hide
becomes rough and unhealthy, the teeth loose, the dung bloody and fetid,
the eyes sink in the head and dropsical swellings appear about the lower
jaws and legs, and usually the creature dies exhausted. For acute
dysentery, when seen early, give horses a drench consisting of 15
tablespoonfuls of castor oil, 8 tablespoonfuls of laudanum, and 1 pint
of linseed oil. The rectum and lower bowel should be washed out with
large injections of simple warm water. For chronic forms 10 grains of
calomel, a teaspoonful of opium, and 4 tablespoons each of gentian and
chalk are advised. These are to be mixed and given either as a ball or
as a drench once a day. Six tablespoonfuls of laudanum in a pint of
boiled starch every two hours until the straining ceases, is also very
good. When cattle are affected, remove from grass or other succulent
food, put on a dry diet and give a pint of linseed oil every day until
recovery. If the action of the bowels does not cease promptly, give 2
tablespoonfuls of powdered alum and 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered ginger
in a quart of milk once or twice a day until the discharge moderates. An
excellent medicine is 10 tablespoonfuls of castor oil and 4
tablespoonfuls of laudanum mixed with linseed gruel and given as a
drench.


=ENTERITIS.=--See Inflammation of the Bowels.


=EPILEPSY.=--See Fits.


=EPIZOOTIC.=--See Influenza.


=ERGOTISM.=--A parasitic fungus that grows on different species of grass
and produces in one stage of its development black or purple enlarged
spurs causes ergotism. The disastrous effect of ergot seems to appear in
the late fall and winter, when hay or straw infected with ergot are
continuously fed. The animals will be troubled with irritation of the
bowels and a sloughing off of the extremities. Frequently the animals
lose parts of their tails or ears or hoofs. In others, gangrenous sores
appear. In the early stages of the poisoning the symptoms are not
clearly marked. The best treatment is secured by an entire change of
food, so as to remove the cause, and then to follow with good laxative
food. Of course, medicinal treatment will not be satisfactory if an
important part of the animal like the hoof were to be destroyed. So much
expense would be connected with keeping the animal until a new hoof had
been formed that it is better at the beginning to destroy the animal
unless very valuable. Where sores only manifest themselves such
treatment as given an ordinary wound will be efficacious, provided food
absolutely free of ergot is supplied.


=ERYSIPELAS.=--An inflammation of the skin and tissues beneath. Owing to
a blood poison, it is characterized by a swelling and hardness of the
affected parts which has a tendency to spread and form abscesses. In
horses and cattle, erysipelas is nearly always the result of wounds and
generally of those in the legs of animals weakened by hard work and poor
food, or else in young animals whose blood is vitiated by the poison of
glanders or some other animal contamination. The disturbance is noticed
on the third or fourth day after the injury in the immediate
neighborhood of the wound. The skin is swollen, smooth, hot, tender, and
painful. The swelling gradually extends around it, sometimes deep into
the muscles. The surface is hard and tense, but often when the finger is
firmly pressed upon it and withdrawn a depression is left. In severe
cases chills occur, the pulse is weak and quick, the breathing hurried,
the bowels constipated and the urine scanty and highly colored. There is
considerable thirst, but no appetite. A brisk purge is the first step in
treating. Follow the purge with tincture of chloride of iron, 4
teaspoonfuls in a pint of water. Give this every three or four hours. At
the same time give internally 4 tablespoonfuls of hyposulphite of soda
in a pint of water three times a day. Externally bathe the wound with
the following mixture: Tincture of chloride of iron, 4 tablespoonfuls,
and alcohol one pint. Another good ointment is sugar of lead 4
tablespoonfuls in a pint of water. This should be applied with a wet
cloth to the diseased parts.


=FARCY.=--See Glanders.


=FEVER.=--Any rise in temperature above the normal. It is, as a rule, a
symptom of the body’s reaction to some form of infection. It is,
therefore, not a disease in itself, but an indication of some disorder
occasioned by infection or poison. To treat fever is not so necessary as
to remove the cause that brought about the disturbance in the first
place. It follows from this that fever is not a cause, but a result.
Germs come first, and fever is only a sign that tells of their presence.
Another thing brought to light in reference to fever is this: Germs are
less active, their vital energy is weakened and their power lessened
when the heat in the body is increased. Consequently they are less
active in their destructive tendencies as the temperature rises. Fever
is, therefore, a provision of self-defense, and the body’s plan of
bringing its forces together to battle against the germ foes that have
invaded it.

Just what degree of temperature is to be considered is difficult to
establish. Many things enter into the problem, like exercise, age, food,
and mode of living. In general, however, any special rise above the
normal, whatever that may be, is the signal of danger and infection. A
rise of a degree or two indicates a mild disturbance, hence a mild
fever; an elevation of two or three degrees indicates a slight fever; of
four or five, of considerable fever; and if six or seven, of high fever.
When the elevation reaches 108 degrees, the limit of life has just
about been reached. In some diseases there is a regular alternative
between morning and evening temperatures. In others, the course is
continuous, with slight variations, while in others the course is
intermittent. In this last named it varies at different portions of the
day, but reaches a normal at a certain time each day.

The pulse-rate usually bears a certain relation to the height of the
disease. Consequently the pulse should be taken in connection with the
fever height indicated by the thermometer. A fast pulse and a high fever
in general is more serious than a high fever with a pulse only slightly
above the normal number of beats. There are exceptions to this however,
as, for instance, in cerebro-spinal meningitis. In the early stages of
fever, the development cannot at the moment always be decided. In many
cases little treatment, if any, will be necessary. The caution should be
observed, nevertheless, of ascertaining the cause of the disturbance, if
possible. In any case, simple cathartics can be given, good air
provided, nourishing feed supplied, and time allowed for careful
observation of the system and of the actions and movements of the
animal.


=FISTULAE.=--A chronic discharge from some tubelike channel, with no
tendency to heal. Fistulæ are most common in horses. They may be located
on the withers (fistulous withers), on the side of the face (tooth
fistulæ), on the breast bone (sternal fistulæ), or on the lower jaw
(salivary fistulæ). Fistulous withers are caused from some external
injury (the animal rolling on a rock, ill-fitting collars, the saddle
pressing on the withers, or from being struck by a club). Tooth fistulæ
are caused by a decayed tooth. The pus in trying to get out of the body
takes the easiest course and eats through the bones of the face and
escapes, causing a chronic discharge. A sternal or breast fistula is
caused by some sharp object being run into the breast and striking the
breast bone, injuring it and causing decay and pus formation. A salivary
fistula is caused by an injury to the tube which carries the saliva from
the gland to the mouth.


=Symptoms of Fistulous Withers.=--At first a large swelling appears on
one or both sides of the withers. In about a week this enlargement
becomes soft, and the fluid contained in it can be distinctly felt. If
left to itself the swelling gets larger and softer, and in a month or so
breaks and discharges the contents. The fluid that comes from the
swelling is first thin and streaked with blood; later it contains
yellow-appearing masses. The last material is the pus. The sack that
formed at the time the fistula was caused is a hard, firm membrane. This
keeps the wound from healing. For this reason the discharge becomes
chronic. The wound may heal and there will be no pus discharged for a
month, then the old opening will be broken and the pus will flow out
again until the sack is emptied. This healing of the wound and then
breaking again may be kept up for years, unless the disease is properly
treated. As a general rule, the affected animal runs down in flesh.

[Illustration: FISTULOUS WITHERS

Sometimes only the skin and tissue immediately under it become affected.
In such cases little trouble need be anticipated; but if the cause is
not removed, the deeper structures, muscles and bones, may become
diseased.]

Treatment for fistulous withers consists of opening the swelling and
inserting muslin strips that have been dipped into terchloride of
antimony. Insert one and remove, inserting another and leave in the
opening for three or four hours. Repeat this operation every four or
five days for a month. In addition rub on the outside of the swelling
once every two weeks a mixture made of 2 teaspoonfuls of cantharides
and 4 tablespoonfuls of lard. The tooth fistula usually calls for the
removal of the tooth and thorough disinfection of the opening from the
face through to the mouth. With a sternal fistula the diseased bone may
need to be scraped and then antiseptic washes used daily. The salivary
fistula is more difficult to treat. Better have the veterinarian to
examine, and an operation may be necessary.


=FITS.=--Some horses are subject to fits, and with them it is incurable.
These should not be driven, because, when the attack comes on, injury
may result to the animal itself and to the occupants in the carriage.
The cause of the difficulty may be overfeeding, bad circulation or
indigestion. When an attack occurs the best treatment is to throw cold
water over the head. If this attack is repeated you had better consult a
veterinarian.


=FLATULENT COLIC.=--See Colic.


=FLEAS.=--Fleas are always a nuisance and always disagreeable. They live
in dry, filthy quarters and associate with dogs, hogs, and chickens. To
keep fleas away or to destroy them when at hand, clean the quarters
occupied by the animals, destroy the bedding and add lime and
disinfectants. Dogs may be washed in a creolin solution of, say, 2
tablespoonfuls of creolin to each pint of water. To disinfect chicken,
hog, and horse pens use in a hand spray any of the so-called sheep dips
or other preparations manufactured for lice, itch, mange, or insect
troubles.


=FLIES.=--These pests are a nuisance on every farm. While they do not
directly cause death they greatly worry and irritate farm stock,
especially in summer, and in this way greatly affect the results whether
along dairy or beef lines. It would be impossible to estimate the misery
these pests inflict on the stock of the country during a single year.
Aside from the pain that flies inflict on domestic animals, they are
carriers of disease, both to the human family and the beast family. A
great many common infectious diseases are spread by flies, including
such serious diseases as typhoid fever and tuberculosis. The only
treatment is in way of prevention. As the breeding places are in filth
and manure, it follows that if these be destroyed or removed, and not
permitted to accumulate, the floods of flies will disappear. The fly
remedies now on the market are excellent. When sprayed about the stable
premises and on the animals the flies stay away until the application
evaporates. Darkened stables are not attractive to flies, and by this
means the nuisance and annoyance is minimized.


=FLUKES, LIVER.=--See Liver Flukes.


=FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE.=--This malady generally affects ruminants, but,
although found most often in cattle, sheep, and goats, it may be
transmitted to swine, and, in some instances, to horses, dogs, cats,
birds, or human beings. In most cases where proper disinfection is made
the animal recovers in about 15 days. The most dangerous thing about
foot and mouth disease is the fact that it spreads so rapidly. The virus
which transmits the disease may be carried by railroad cars, bedding,
feeds, dairy products, dogs, cats, birds, or persons. A dog running
through a pasture may be the means of infecting a whole herd.

The cause of the disease has not been satisfactorily determined, but it
is definitely known that the virus which reproduces the disease comes
from the ulcers and natural secretions and excretions of the body, such
as milk, saliva, perspiration, feces, urine, and exhalation. The
contagion is not harmful when dried. Infected animals lose the power of
transmitting the disease when the ulcers of the mouth, feet, and udder
have healed.

In from three to five days after infection the animal has a moderate
fever. The appetite is lost and the mouth is kept closed. There is a
dribbling of saliva, and in two or three days yellowish-white spots the
size of a hemp seed appear on the gums, the lower surface of the tongue,
lining of the mouth and on the lips. These eventually attain the size of
a silver dollar. They run together, burst and form painful,
foul-smelling ulcers. At this stage the saliva is more profuse and ropy
and the animal makes characteristic smacking noises with the mouth.

Infected animals lose flesh rapidly, in some cases as much as 100 pounds
in eight or ten days. The milk is thick, yellowish-white, has a bad
taste, and is with difficulty made into cheese or butter. The reduction
in milk yield during the sickness and for some time after recovery is 50
to 75 per cent.

Usually, a short time after an appearance of the disease in the mouth
parts, there is a redness, heat and swelling of the skin at its junction
with the hoof and especially between the toes and upon the soles of the
foot. Similar ulcers to those on the mouth appear on the feet and soon
burst. The animal becomes lame and moves stiffly and lies down a great
deal. These ulcers ordinarily heal up in one or two weeks.

In some cases the animal dies suddenly, in others lingers a few hours
with difficult breathing and discharge of blood from the nose, and
finally dies of paralysis of the heart and lungs. In still other cases
emaciation and reduction of milk flow is the only bad result. Sometimes
ulcers form at the root of the horn and cause the horn to drop off.

Owing to the nature of the disease, its contagion and danger, treatment
should be in line of prevention and in destruction of infected animals.
While the disease yields to treatment, our best suggestions when the
disease is suspected is in notification to the state officers and in
securing the services of a veterinarian who will be able to advise what
is best to do.

[Illustration: FOOT ROT

A disease usually associated with sheep. It is sometimes so serious that
the entire hoof rots away.]


=FOOT PUNCTURE.=--See Wounds and Their Treatment.


=FOOT ROT IN SHEEP.=--A chronic inflammation of the foot, marked by
ulceration, softening of the hoof, lameness, and the discharge of a
sticky material which has a very fetid odor. It is a contagious disease,
and is produced by a germ that lives in the soil and gains entrance to
the feet through wounds and surfaces chafed by barbed grasses and
stones, or by gritty clay, which becomes lodged between the toes and
hardens there.

The first symptom is a slight lameness. If the affected foot be
examined, that part just above the horny part of the cleft of the foot,
either in front or behind, will be found inflamed, feverish, and moist.
Erosions or ulcers soon appear, generally on the heel. These penetrate
the foot and burrow beneath the horny parts, causing fistulous tracts
from which exudes a foul-smelling pus possessing an odor sufficiently
characteristic to indicate the disease in a flock, even without a close
examination. In time, the foot becomes greatly overgrown and deformed,
the hoofs increasing in length and curling upward. In bad cases, the
suffering is so great the animal lies down most of the time, but when
only the front feet are diseased, it will crawl around on its knees.

That the disease is contagious is shown by the fact that it generally
starts in one foot and spreads to the others, and, at the same time, the
feet of other sheep in the same flock become diseased in the same way,
the outbreak covering a period of several months. In cases that recover
spontaneously the foot is deformed and the joint is stiffened. It is
only in virulent outbreaks where all the feet are diseased, or where
some complication, such as maggots, is present, that deaths occur.

Having as its cause a microbe, it is proper to take measures of
prevention as well as cure. In purchasing sheep, it is highly advisable
to keep them isolated for a week, as a test. All overgrown hoofs should
be trimmed. Sores or wounds, from any cause, should be carefully
disinfected daily. Low, boggy lands should not be used as pasture for
sheep, and dirty, unsanitary pens should be made sanitary, as these all
predispose to an outbreak of the disease.

As treatment, first isolate all affected animals. Mild cases are best
treated by making the sheep stand for several minutes daily in a trough
containing a disinfectant, or, better still, by arranging the trough of
suitable length with fenced-up sides and a widened entrance, so the
sheep can be easily started into the inclosure and made to wade through
the disinfectant.

In bad cases and where the hoof is underrun with pus, the horn and all
overgrowths must be cut away so as to expose the diseased parts to the
action of the disinfectant. The foot should then be dried, dusted with
finely powdered burnt alum, and bandaged to keep out the dirt. This
antiseptic treatment of the feet must be kept up daily as long as the
disease exists. Any of the following may be used: 1 pound chloride of
lime to 12 quarts of water; 1 pound of pure carbolic acid to 4 gallons
of water; a solution of creolin; a coal-tar disinfectant of the same
strength; or any good sheep dip containing these substances in the
proper amounts.


=FOUNDER.=--An inflammation of the sensitive or soft structures between
the hoof and bones of the foot. The popular belief that founder is to
any extent in the legs and chest is probably an error. The disease is in
the feet, and those symptoms which make it appear as a stiffness in the
legs and shoulder are but the natural results of soreness in the feet.
The same statement might be made regarding those cases which are
popularly described as “stove up in the shoulder.” Instead of the
soreness being in the shoulder in these cases, it is generally in the
feet, or at least below the knee.

It is somewhat difficult to explain how those influences or causes which
are known to produce founder bring about that condition, but observation
shows clearly that an irritation of the digestive tract, or in fact, any
extensive irritation of any mucous surface, may produce an inflammation
of the sensitive laminæ of the feet; that is, founder. Therefore founder
may be produced by a change of feed or excessive feeding, a change of
work or excessive work which results in exhaustion, large quantities of
feed or water when warm or fatigued, sudden changes of temperature such
as cooling too fast when sweating, and a long drive on hard roads,
especially without shoes. Excessive purging or diarrhœa may also produce
it. Founder also occasionally results from irritation of foaling, but
this is not common.

There is no essential difference in the nature of the disease determined
by the particular agent or condition which causes it. “Water founder,”
and that produced by over-feeding, concussion, or extreme fatigue are,
in so far as the character of the disease is concerned, one and the same
thing.

[Illustration: FOUNDER

In bad cases of founder the foot shrinks from the wasting of the
sensitive substances. A typical foundered foot is pictured here.]


=Founder May Occur= in the fore or hind feet or in both; but generally
the fore feet are those affected. A stiffness and disinclination to move
are perhaps the first symptoms noticed. The position in which the animal
stands is characteristic. The fore feet will be placed well forward, so
that the weight will be borne by the heels, while the hind feet are
brought well up under the body in order to take as much weight off the
front feet as possible. This position gives a rather unsteady appearance
to animal, and the hind feet are frequently shifted in order to maintain
as steady a position as possible. From this fact founder is frequently
mistaken by inexperienced persons for a disease of the kidneys. The body
temperature is usually considered increased; that is, there is fever--as
it is generally expressed--due to inflammation in the feet. As is usual
in the first stages of inflammation, the pulse beat is increased in
frequency and force. An increase of heat in the feet, with a
manifestation of pain when the hoofs are tapped with a hammer, are, when
taken with all the foregoing facts, sufficient evidence of founder.
When founder occurs in one foot, however, as it sometimes does, the
diagnosis may be more difficult for the inexperienced. When it occurs
only in the hind feet the position which the animal takes will not be
different from that taken with founder in only both fore feet but from
different causes. The hind feet are brought well forward under the body,
but for the purpose of throwing such little weight as is borne on them
on the heels.


=The Feet Should Be Kept Moist.=--Remove the shoes and apply moisture to
the feet. The latter may be done by standing the animal in water five or
six inches deep each day, several hours at a time, or by the application
of a poultice of wheat bran or some such material, or by wrapping the
feet with cloths and keeping them thoroughly saturated with water. The
animal should always be encouraged to lie down and take the weight off
his feet, which is beneficial. When this occurs, a poultice of some sort
must be used to apply moisture to the feet. It may be applied by the use
of a sack large enough to envelop the foot and hold sufficient of the
poultice to retain the moisture for some time. This application of
moisture to the feet should be continued until the severity of the
inflammation and the lameness have subsided.

Unless the founder be due to excessive purgation, a quart of raw linseed
oil should be given as a purgative. During the first 48 hours from 30 to
40 drops of tincture of aconite may be given every three or four hours.
Four tablespoonfuls of nitrate of potash (saltpeter) should also be
given three times a day in the feed or on the tongue. If the lameness
continues after the acute symptoms have subsided, a rest of several
weeks on a soft pasture and the application of a blister around the top
of the hoof are recommended. The following mixture has been useful as a
blister: Red iodide of mercury, 1 part; lard, 4 parts; cerate of
cantharides, 4 parts. Apply around the top of the hoof, except at the
heels, and rub for 10 to 15 minutes. The animal should be tied so that
it cannot get its mouth to the blistered part for several hours after
the medicine has been applied.


=CHRONIC FOUNDER.=--In a majority of cases the above treatment will be
followed by a good recovery, but an animal once foundered is probably
more likely to suffer from a subsequent attack. If the lameness does not
entirely disappear in a week or ten days, it is seldom that a complete
recovery takes place. In such cases the animal is likely to remain unfit
for road work and to continue to show more or less soreness. These are
the cases that are later said to have “chest founder,” or “stove up in
the shoulder,” owing to the fact that the muscles of the chest waste
away from lack of free use.

In some cases still more serious results follow an acute attack of
founder. The inflammation may be so severe that there is separation
between the hoof and structures, the formation of pus, and a descent of
the central organs of the foot, which causes a bulging of the sole. In
such cases, even though recovery takes place to such an extent that it
is advisable to allow the animal to live, it is not fit for work, and
can only be used for breeding purposes.


=FOWL CHOLERA.=--See Chicken Cholera.


=GAPES.=--A symptom caused by worms in the windpipe; oftenest seen in
young chicks and turkeys. Birds droop, cough, and lower their wings. A
feather moistened, but not dripping, with kerosene or oil of turpentine
is the commonest remedy. Cleanliness of food, water and quarters is the
great preventive. Poultry men who keep their chicks on ground not used
for chick raising the previous year, and who insist on strictest
cleanliness, report highly satisfactory results in avoiding gapes.


=GARGET.=--A swelling, accompanied by inflammation of the udder. It may
be caused by kicks or blows, by germs getting into the udder, or as a
result of holding the milk too long. Do not use the milk when the udder
is affected. For garget rub with hot camphorated oil twice a day. Give
as medicine 8 tablespoonfuls of hyposulphite of soda each day, either in
the feed or in a drench. Keep up the treatment for two weeks.


=GASTRITIS.=--A rather uncommon disease in domestic animals and the
result of a disturbance in the stomach, with inflammation following,
caused by irritating substances, usually of a poisonous nature. A common
symptom is nausea and pain like colic. Indeed, the ordinary outward
signs of colic are observed. At first the pulse is strong, which
weakens, and runs rapidly, from 80 to 100 beats a minute. As the disease
progresses the pulse becomes irregular and the animal dull and listless.
Treatment consists of simple agents. If the disturbance is due to some
potassium compound, give oil; if to ammonia, give vinegar; if from
turpentine, give oil and opium, the opium in teaspoonful doses every
couple hours. After recovery, let only easily digested food be provided.


=GID IN SHEEP.=--A disease of the brain due to a worm in the brain
substance. This worm, known as the bladder worm, is a form of the
tape-worm of the dog at an early stage of its existence. The eggs of
this worm, on being swallowed, are hatched in the stomach, from which
they enter into the circulation, finally lodging in the brain and spinal
cord. Those that lodge elsewhere, as in the heart and lungs, grow for a
time and then disappear. The most conspicuous symptom is the staggering,
stupefied condition of the affected animal.

In walking, if a single side is affected, a circle is described. The
feet are raised as if the animal did not see well. In many cases
blindness results. The growth of the worm is somewhat rapid. In about
three weeks after the appearance of the disease a softened condition of
the skull results, which may be found by pressing the fingers over it.
From this it will be observed that there is practically no treatment for
animals affected. Occasionally the skin is accidentally broken over the
point where the worm is encysted, out of which it emerges and the sheep
recovers.

Treatment, therefore, is along the line of this natural recovery. Find
the soft spot by pressing the fingers over the skull, then introduce the
trocar and canula. Withdraw the trocar, apply a syringe to the canula,
and withdraw the contents of the cyst within. Of course, inflammation of
the brain may set in and the sheep die from this, or another worm may be
present and grow, thus causing continued disease. Inasmuch as the
bladder worm of sheep is a stage of the tape-worm of the dog, it follows
that destroying all affected sheep, so as to prevent the dogs from
becoming reinfested from it, is the only really safe and satisfactory
method of warding off the trouble.


=GLANDERS.=--A contagious disease peculiar to the horse, ass, and mule,
and may be communicated to human beings, and also sometimes to
carnivorous animals in menageries, by means of infected horse flesh,
and also by means of inoculation to field mice, guinea pigs, dogs, cats,
goats, rabbits, and sheep. Pigs are not readily susceptible and cattle
appear to be immune. Like all diseases of a contagious or infectious
character, glanders is due to a specific organism, known as the bacillus
malleus.

The external manifestations of glanders differ and consequently the
disease is spoken of as glanders or farcy, depending upon the symptoms
presented. The disease is known as glanders when the horse suffering
from it has a discharge from the nose, ulcers on the septum nasi (the
partition dividing the nasal cavities) and enlarged submaxillary glands,
and is known as farcy when the affected animal has farcy “buds” or
ulcers on the skin, and corded lymphatic vessels running from one “bud”
to another. In farcy, the corded lymphatics, “buds” and ulcers on the
skin are very apt to be on the inside of one hind leg or the other, but
may appear on the inside of a fore leg, or on the neck or body.

Farcy was, in olden times, thought to be a different disease from
glanders, and was believed by many to be curable, while glanders has
always been generally believed to be incurable, but it is now known that
farcy is simply one manifestation of glanders. It has been found that a
horse with glanders may give another farcy, and vice versa. Guinea pigs
inoculated with the discharge from a glandered horse’s nose will develop
glanders, and pure cultures of the glanders bacillus can be obtained
from them, and in a similar way if guinea pigs are inoculated with the
discharge from a sore on a horse with farcy glanders may be produced in
these little experimental animals, and upon post mortem examination pure
cultures of the glanders bacillus can be obtained from the lesions of
the disease produced in them. Glanders and farcy may again be divided
into two forms, acute and chronic glanders, and acute and chronic farcy.

In the acute form the disease develops rapidly, the lesions form more
speedily and with greater rapidity than in the chronic form and the
animal loses strength and condition and dies within the course of a few
weeks, sometimes in the course of a week or two. It is not unusual to
meet with an animal showing symptoms of both glanders and farcy,
especially in the acute form.

In the chronic form the symptoms are not so well marked, and a horse may
go for months keeping in fairly good condition and able to do its work,
the disease developing very slowly, and at times showing a tendency to
recover; yet such an animal is a source of danger to other horses, and
also to the man taking care of him or driving him. A horse with chronic
glanders, or farcy, may give the disease to another in an acute form,
especially if the other one is more susceptible for some reason, such as
a less strong constitution or being run down by hard work.

Post mortem examination of horses with glanders, or farcy, nearly always
reveals the presence of glanders nodules or tubercles in the lungs, and,
in many instances, there is no doubt but what a horse may have the
tubercles of glanders in his lungs for some time before showing outward
symptoms of the disease, and in many cases the primary lesions of the
infection occur in the lungs. A horse with lung glanders may be a source
of danger to other horses and cause disease in them and yet go
unsuspected for some time. A case is said to have occurred in Boston a
number of years ago where a hack horse lost eight successive mates with
glanders; he was finally killed and his lungs were found to be full of
glanders nodules, and yet he never showed any external symptoms of
glanders. Such cases could be cited in large numbers if space permitted,
but one example will answer.

[Illustration: BAD CASE OF GLANDERS

The farcy form is shown here. The animal has not long to live. Except
for experimental purposes, every horse having glanders should be killed
as soon as the disease is discovered.]

A horse with lung glanders may have a little dry, spasmodic cough, may
look somewhat unthrifty, and if the temperature were taken it might be
slightly above normal, say, 101 degrees to 101½, the normal temperature
being 100 degrees. Yet such an animal might do its work, last for a long
time and not be suspected as a source of danger until several cases had
occurred in the stable, for which it was difficult to account.

While a well-marked case of glanders or of farcy is not difficult of
diagnosis, there are many obscure cases which escape detection for some
time. If a horse has a well-marked discharge from one or both nostrils,
with characteristic chancres visible upon the mucous membrane of the
septum nasi, and hard enlarged submaxillary glands in the intermaxillary
space, it is not a difficult matter to diagnose such a case, and any
horseman ought to recognize it. The same is true of a well-marked case
of farcy. When the lymphatic vessels on the inside of a leg, especially
a hind leg, are swelled and corded, with a chain of farcy buds along
their course, some of which have gathered and broken, leaving a
discharging open ulcer in the skin, it is quite evident that the animal
is suffering from farcy.

A peculiarity of glanders seems to be a tendency for the symptoms to
appear on the left side; in many cases of glanders the discharge and
ulceration is in the left nostril, and the left submaxillary gland is
enlarged; and in a large number of the cases of farcy met with it is the
left hind leg that shows the lesions of the disease. In obscure cases of
glanders or farcy the diagnosis is not always so easy, even for experts,
and then other methods for determining the trouble have to be resorted
to. These are the guinea pig test and the mallein test. The guinea pig
test consists of inoculating one or two of these little animals with the
discharge from a suspected horse’s nose, or from a farcy sore. If they
should develop glanders it would be proof positive that the suspected
horse had this disease; if they do not develop glanders it is not always
positive proof that the suspected horse is free from the disease.
Sometimes more than one test is necessary, or another method of
diagnosis may have to be resorted to. This is the mallein test.

Mallein is a product made from cultures of the glanders bacillus
analogous to tuberculin as made from cultures of the tubercle bacillus,
and is used for testing horses for glanders much as tuberculin is used
for testing cattle for tuberculosis. A horse infected with glanders will
react to a mallein test in much the same way as a cow infected with
tuberculosis will react to the tuberculin test. It is not customary in
some states to kill a horse that reacts to mallein unless it shows some
clinical evidence of disease. All horses that show clinical evidence of
glanders or farcy in some states are killed by the state authority, and
the law requires persons knowing or suspecting cases of this kind to
report in writing to the chief of the cattle bureau of the state board
of agriculture or to the inspector of animals in the city or town where
the disease is believed to exist, except in some cities where the city
board of health has full charge of glanders and farcy. Anyone selling,
removing, transporting, or concealing a horse knowing or having
reasonable cause to believe it has glanders or farcy is in most states
liable to a heavy penalty.

In stables where glanders exists, in some cases, all the horses are
tested and divided; the reactors are separated from the non-reactors,
and those that react are tested once a month until they cease to react,
or show physical indications of glanders and are killed. Used in this
way mallein seems to have a curative effect on incipient cases, and has
been very successfully used in freeing infected stables from the
disease. When a horse is killed because it has glanders or farcy the
stall should be thoroughly disinfected where it has been kept, as well
as the harness, blankets, currycomb and other utensils, and anything
that cannot be easily disinfected ought to be destroyed. Public watering
troughs where the horse has been watered should be emptied and cleaned
out, and the blacksmith ought to disinfect his shop where the horse was
shod.

There are various diseases that may be taken for glanders or farcy, and
there have also been numerous instances where glanders has been taken
for something else; for instance, chronic nasal catarrh. What many
old-time veterinarians used to call chronic nasal catarrh or nasal
gleet, were, in many instances, if not in nearly all, cases of chronic
glanders, and when one of these cases of nasal gleet was rounded up in a
locality, glanders disappeared in that neighborhood.

A horse with a chronic discharge from the nose as the result of a
decayed tooth may sometimes be mistaken for a case of glanders, and also
a horse with distemper or strangles; but the latter generally recovers
soon, and in strangles the gland under the jaw softens and breaks and
discharges while in glanders the gland remains firm and hard and
generally not sensitive to manipulation.

There is a disease that has been troublesome in Pennsylvania and parts
of Ohio the last two years called suppurative lymphangitis or epizootic
lymphangitis, which may be mistaken for farcy, but animals suffering
from it do not react to mallein, and guinea pigs inoculated with the
discharges do not develop glanders. There is not much glanders in the
Eastern states, except in the cities, and the disease is not of a great
deal of interest to farmers, except to avoid purchasing animals with it
at some of the unreliable sales stables. Where a case occurs on a farm,
except on some market gardener’s farm near a city, it is found, as a
rule, that the horse was purchased at some unscrupulous dealer’s stable
in the city, and, in some instances, other horses on the farm are
infected, and the farmer not only loses his new acquisition, but has two
or three other horses killed besides that have become infected.

Farmers buying new horses at city sales stables ought to endeavor to
deal with only reputable concerns, and to avoid cheats. It is well to
remember that a person cannot get something for nothing, and it is not
likely that anyone can buy a horse for $50 to $75 because it is afraid
of elevated railroad trains that would otherwise be worth $300 to $500,
or because a widow lady wants a good home for her late husband’s old
pet. Anyone buying horses from a fake coal company, or a humbug ice
company, or an unknown express company that is just going out of
business, is liable to invite a serious disease to his farm.


=GRAVEL OR DIRT IN FOOT.=--A collection of pus, or other fluid
containing gravel or dirt. It occurs most frequently in the foot, and is
associated with the horse and mule almost exclusively. The cause may be
from a bruise, but more frequently it is due to a punctured wound of the
foot by nail, wire, or other pointed object. Nearly always there will be
dirt carried into the wound with the offending object or shortly after
its removal. This dirt, infected with germs, sets up an inflammation of
the sensitive structures causing more or less lameness. In many
instances the nail hole becomes closed up and the collected matter may
have to seek an outlet above the hoof. To determine the trouble a very
careful examination of the hoof should be made, looking for any opening
leading into the foot, often detected by discoloration of the part, or
at an over-sensitive point in the foot.

Treatment should consist in making or enlarging the opening at a
dependent part of the hoof, if possible, so that all secretion formed in
the wound can find a ready escape to the outside. Without free opening
there is danger of tetanus (lockjaw) developing. The wound should be
thoroughly cleansed, and washed with some mild disinfectant, after which
a small quantity of oil of turpentine should be injected, and the wound
packed with calomel or iodoform and covered with a pledget of cotton. If
the wound is very deep or extensive it may be beneficial, after
thoroughly cleansing the foot, to apply a hot bran or flaxseed poultice.
Use poultice for several days and change daily.


=GREASE HEEL.=--A form of eczema that attacks the skin of the heel and
fetlock. Sometimes the disease becomes so severe as to crack open, from
which blood oozes out. A crust forms and later on becomes painful and
disagreeable. To remove the scurvy part that is noticed first, apply a
poultice, made of wheat bran or linseed meal. Change the poultices two
or three times during the day. After removal each time wash with warm
water, in which has been put some carbolic acid or creolin, and then
apply the poultice again. After the poulticing is ended apply a salve
made of 4 tablespoonfuls of oxide of zinc and 8 tablespoonfuls of
vaseline. If indigestion seems to be associated in any way, give the
horse a dose of physic, aloes being best for the purpose.


=GRUB IN THE HEAD.=--This condition is the presence of the larva (worm
stage) of the sheep bot fly, located in the frontal sinuses (cavities)
of the head. The trouble is confined to sheep and occasionally goats.
The so-called “grub” of the horse is found in its stomach, while the
“grub” of cattle is found along its back just underneath the skin. The
adult fly, which lays the living “sheep grub,” is of a yellowish-gray
color, slightly larger than a house fly. During the warmer part of the
summer days the fly goes about depositing its young in the nose of the
sheep. The young then work their way upward into cavities of the head
between the eyes, but not into the brain cavity. Here they attach
themselves to the lining, remaining when unmolested for some ten months,
then lose their hold and are sneezed out to the ground. Burrowing into
the ground they enter the pupa or dormant stage, when, after a month or
six weeks, they emerge as adult flies to replenish their kind.

When few grubs are in the head little trouble may be observed, but if
more numerous may cause free discharge of dirty white or yellowish,
thick fluid, loss of appetite, frequent coughing and sneezing, tossing
of head and weakened gait, and the animal may become too weak to rise,
and finally dies. With a special instrument (trephine) bore a hole into
the cavity containing grubs and remove them with forceps. When they are
present every year the sheep should be protected by keeping the nose
smeared with tar during summer months. This can be done by causing sheep
to lick salt from holes in a trough after placing tar about the holes.


=HAIR BALLS.=--True hair balls are seldom found in other animals than
cattle, resulting either from licking themselves or others; but
different kinds of indigestible balls or concretions are frequently
found in cattle and other animals, particularly the horse, in the
stomach or intestines. Dust balls are occasionally formed when animals
are fed upon mill cleanings. In sections where crimson clover is fed,
and frequently in over-ripe condition in large quantities, balls are
formed of parts of the indigestible heads. Again, calcareous or mineral
matter may accumulate about an indigestible substance as a nucleus.
These are not well-defined, in many instances, and the balls are often
present without making it known. So long as they do not irritate the
bowel too much, or do not occlude the opening from one portion of the
bowel to another, they are likely to escape notice. In case they do
obstruct the bowel they become serious obstacles, the greater number of
these cases terminating in death. The symptoms then become those of
colic from obstruction. In many cases no relief can be given, but
attempts should be made to cause the obstruction to pass by giving mild
purgatives and copious enemas.


=HEAVES.=--The term “heaves” is used to describe that disease of the
horse which otherwise is known as “broken wind,” or technically as
“emphysema of the lungs.” This ailment, which is incurable when
thoroughly established and to which a tendency is inherited by the
offspring of an affected sire or dam, is characterized by the following
symptoms: Double, bellows-like action of the abdominal muscles in
breathing; short, suppressed cough, usually accompanied by passage of
gas from the rectum; gluttonous appetite; harsh, staring coat of hair;
pot belly; weakness; lack of endurance, sweating, panting, or staggering
during work; dilated nostrils; frequent passage of gas and soft,
foul-smelling feces when starting from stable.

The disease begins with indigestion, affecting in time the
pneumo-gastric nerve of the stomach and then the branch nerves running
to the lungs. At first the air tubules and vesicles of the lungs become
dilated (aneurism); later they may break down into large air spaces and
the surrounding lung tissues become involved (interlobular emphysema).
Air then is easily inhaled, but is exhaled with difficulty and the
effort causes cough and expulsion of gas (flatus).

The distress may be relieved by treatment, but perfect recovery is
impossible when the lungs have become badly affected. Treat by
substituting wet oat straw for hay in winter and grass for hay in
summer. Allow double the usual rest period after a meal. Work when
stomach is not distended with food. Do not feed hay at noon. Use lime
water to wet all food. Once or twice a week give raw linseed oil in a
bran mash to open bowels. Give half an ounce of Fowler’s solution of
arsenic night and morning. Do not breed from affected horses.


=HEAT EXHAUSTION AND SUNSTROKE.=--The horse that is stricken with heat
exhaustion or which falls from heat, apoplexy or “sunstroke,” is sick or
out of sorts at the time of attack; otherwise he would withstand heat
and work. The middle horse of a three-horse team suffers most and is apt
to succumb to the ill-effects of the combined radiation of heat from his
mates and direct rays of the sun. Attacks are most apt to happen on the
third or fourth day of a spell of intensely hot weather characterized by
mugginess, electrical storms and moisture-saturated air. At such times
the horse that has indigestion, a heavy, unhealthy coat of hair, a skin
or kidney trouble or any affection of the brain or heart is the one that
must be most carefully watched and worked.

With the hope of preventing attacks feed light rations, no corn, no
mashes, no ground feed other than bran; avoid green grass, unless the
horses are on it all of the time; do not feed hay at noon; allow cool,
pure drinking water often when horses are at work; keep stables clean,
darkened, screened, and ventilated; shade the polls of the horses’ heads
during work time and in such a way that air passes freely under the
shading device.

In sunstroke the horse falls and soon succumbs. In heat exhaustion he
lags, stops sweating, pants, staggers, skin is dry, nostrils dilated,
membranes of eyes and nostrils red. High fever is present. Treat by
keeping cold, wet packs to the poll of head or letting a stream of cold
water run over it. Shower body with cold water from a sprinkling can.
Stand horse in shady place under a tree where air passes. Give
stimulants freely in water as a drench every hour at first, then less
often as symptoms abate. A suitable stimulant is whiskey in half pint
doses, or a mixture of one part of aromatic spirits of ammonia and two
parts each of alcohol and sweet spirits of niter. Dose is two ounces in
half pint water. Do not bleed horse or give aconite. Give half ounce
doses of saltpeter in water twice daily as horse recovers. Call the
veterinarian in sunstroke cases.


=HERNIA.=--A protrusion of any portion of the bowels or their coverings
through a break in the walls of the abdomen. A rupture, for that is the
popular term, is most common in horses. Often at birth they are seen
near the navel. These disappear in a few months without any treatment
being required. In mature horses the usual causes are blows, kicks or
some violent effort that tears the muscular structure.

[Illustration: VENTRAL HERNIA

It may occur in any part of the abdomen and varies in size with the
extent of the rupture.]

The characteristic symptom is the bulging out of the gut, tumorlike; and
this often can be slipped back where it belongs. If the rent be not
closed, even if the gut is returned, the least bit of strain is liable
to force it out again. Some kinds of hernia cause immense pain and the
animal shows it.

In treating, work the gut back to its place. This done, place a pad--a
flat piece of wood or leather will do--over the wound and fasten in such
a way as to keep it in place. This should be worn for a month until
recovery is complete. Such treatment will not serve in all cases of
hernia. An operation may be necessary, which should be made only by a
skillful veterinarian.


=HIDE-BOUND.=--This is not a disease at all, but an indication of poor
health, more particularly of poor nutrition; usually the result of
indigestion, improper food, worms or want of proper exercise. The skin
is hard, rough, papery, and cannot be picked up from the body with ease.
When the attempt is made, it suggests that the body is too large for the
skin. Of course treatment is in the nature of better food, that proper
nourishment may be secured. A good physic will be proper to start with
and then follow with a tonic, easily assimilable food of a nature that
will properly nourish the body.


=HIGH BLOWING.=--A sound produced in the act of breathing while the air
is being expelled from the lungs during forced respiration. It is a
fluttering sort of a sound. When horses are trotting or pacing the sound
is essentially a nasal one, and is not to be regarded as a state of
unsoundness. It is rather a measure of excitability, and associated with
horses of much spirit and good breeding.


=HIP JOINT LAMENESS.=--A disease of the hip, caused usually by some
injury as from a fall or kick. A slight swelling is observed just over
the hip, and lameness when the animal walks or trots. In severe cases,
the horse will hop and catch the lame leg. The best treatment is
absolute rest. Frequent applications of hot water are good. After each
application bathe with a solution made of 4 ounces of water, 2 ounces of
tincture of opium, 2 ounces of tincture of arnica and an ounce of
belladonna. If the lameness continues, use a blister made of 2
teaspoonfuls of cantharides and 4 tablespoonfuls of lard. Allow the
blister to remain for an entire day, then wash off with soap and water
and apply lard or vaseline. Repeat in a couple of weeks if necessary. If
the lameness disappears, give the horse rest for several weeks.


=HIPPED.=--A fracture at the point of the hip. The most common cause is
striking the point of the hip against a door post or pole. Sometimes a
kick is responsible. While recovery follows, as a rule, from the very
nature of the fracture, there is no treatment that will remedy the
broken point. After the soreness has passed no inconvenience results;
only a blemish is observed.


=HOG CHOLERA.=--The term hog cholera has become quite ambiguous, partly
on account of new discoveries concerning the cause of the disease and
partly on account of what have been supposed to be two different but
curiously related diseases being generally included under this general
term. Until within a year or two we have supposed that there were two
infectious diseases of hogs recognized under the general terms of hog
cholera and swine plague. It now seems probable that we will be able to
do away with the term swine plague entirely.

The disease considered here answers to the following requirements: (a)
Infectious by association or other natural exposure; (b) the animal
before death and the carcass after death show certain accepted symptoms
which are clearly recognized as pertaining to cholera; (c) the blood is
virulent and capable of reproducing the disease on inoculation into
susceptible hogs; (d) attack and recovery confer immunity. It is to be
understood that we might easily have diseases among swine where
characteristic “a” or even “b” might be present and yet the disease be
not true hog cholera.

[Illustration: AN ATTACK OF CHOLERA

One of the familiar attitudes assumed when the hog is affected with
cholera. When this far along, not many cases of recovery are observed.]

Until within recent years American authorities, bacteriologists and
veterinarians alike, have very generally accepted a certain germ, the
bacillus of Salmon and Smith, as the specific cause of hog cholera and
another somewhat similar germ as the cause of what was supposed to be a
distinct but curiously related disease--swine plague. But within a few
years workers in the Federal bureau of animal industry have apparently
demonstrated that hog cholera is caused by a living germ so small that
it passes easily through germ filters which remove all known forms of
the bacillus of Salmon and Smith.

It may be interesting to note further that this new germ is so small as
to be invisible to the highest available powers of the best microscope.
That it is a living organism and not a chemical poison may be very
easily demonstrated. The curious relations to this disease of the old
bacilli of hog cholera and of swine plague are not well understood, but
it seems quite possible that they may play some part in the later
development of the disease after the disease processes have been started
by the invisible germ. While our old theories and supposed information
concerning the cause of hog cholera have been very much disturbed by
newer work, it is important to remember that hog cholera is now just as
much as before to be recognized as a distinctly infectious disease. It
is important to remember also that this infection is absolutely
necessary, or there can be no cholera no matter how susceptible animals
may be. There can be no cholera without this primary and specific cause
any more than there can be plants in our wheat fields without the
previous presence of mustard seed. Conditions of soil and climate may
favor a rank growth of mustard. Conditions of feed and keep may favor
the development and spread of hog cholera. They may decrease resistance
and increase susceptibility, but cannot originally cause the disease. It
is a rather common experience that hogs kept closely housed and fed,
especially with such foods as corn, offer less resistance than do other
hogs. In our vaccine work we frequently find hogs of this type which die
readily under inoculation with blood of low grade virulence. Hogs of
hardier type may become slightly sick or not sick at all with
inoculation from the same infectious material. Pampered show herds
appear especially susceptible to both natural infection and artificial
inoculation.

The farmer, and for that matter the public in general, should bear in
mind that the cause of hog cholera is a living organism capable of
enormously rapid self-multiplication--actual, though very minute
particles of matter. This, fully understood, makes it apparent that
infection may be carried in any way that other fine particles of matter
may be carried. It thus becomes very apparent that the infection may be
carried by sick hogs or upon the legs and bodies of hogs not sick; it
may be carried in wagon boxes, in hog racks, in stock cars, or upon
shoes and clothing of people. It is very evident that the infection may
be carried down stream, especially in small creeks, and give rise to
other outbreaks.

So far as the sick hog is concerned, we are quite sure that the blood
and the manure are thoroughly infectious and there can be no question
concerning the infectiousness of fresh carcasses of dead hogs. Perhaps
we should say first of all that we rarely get all of the accepted
symptoms of hog cholera plainly shown in one case. It is important to
bear in mind that cases vary in virulence from those of very chronic
type where hogs live for weeks and finally die or recover, to very acute
cases where they die overnight.

The hog coming down with cholera is usually sluggish at first, lying
around in the shade and refusing feed. The hair may become rough. The
eyes early show symptoms of inflammation, with a sticky discharge. There
is usually a suppressed cough. The gait may become irregular and
uncertain, especially with the hind legs. After these preliminary
symptoms have been shown for a time, the skin becomes red, changing to
purple, especially noticeable in white-haired hogs. The hog is then
usually within a very few days of death.

As already explained, not all cases are typical. Sometimes hogs die in
an outbreak of cholera from undoubted hog cholera, and yet the ante
mortem or post mortem symptoms show very little upon which to base a
diagnosis. But we may easily demonstrate that these were cases of
cholera by injecting their blood into susceptible hogs and by thus
producing typical cholera.

[Illustration: THE RESULT OF HOG CHOLERA

A post mortem of a hog dying from cholera will show ulcers like those
pictured here. Look for them in the large intestine.]

At the autopsy of an ordinary case of cholera the first and perhaps the
most striking thing seen is the purpling of the skin. On opening the
carcass small blood spots may be found under the skin and in the fat cut
through. The glands along the intestines are intensely inflamed. The
mucous membrane of the stomach is frequently thickened and roughened and
in chronic cases there may be ulcers. On opening the intestines we see
areas here and there of intense inflammation in the acute cases or
numerous ulcers in cases of more chronic type. In very acute cases we
find areas intensely inflamed, even bloody in places. The slow chronic
cases develop characteristic hog cholera ulcers. These may appear at
almost any point on the lining membrane, but more particularly in the
blind pouch and around the point where the small intestine connects with
the large intestine. On stripping off a very thin transparent membrane
covering the kidneys, a typical case of hog cholera will usually show
minute red spots on the surface somewhat resembling the covering of a
turkey egg, which gives the common name of turkey egg kidney of hog
cholera.


=Preventing the Disease.=--Clearly there are certain things which the
owner of healthy hogs in a hog cholera district should do and a good
many things which he should not do. The same is equally true for the man
who has sick hogs in a neighborhood where there are uninfected herds.
The owner of healthy hogs and his family should keep away from public
stock yards, from all pens and yards on other farms whether sickness
among hogs prevails or not. It may easily occur that a neighbor’s hogs
may appear well but have recently received the infection and be already
capable of scattering the disease. We do not know at what period in the
development of this disease infected hogs become capable of
disseminating hog cholera.

During a hog cholera season the owner of healthy hogs should institute
something in the way of private quarantine and pleasantly, perhaps, but
firmly, ask visitors, especially stock buyers and threshing machine
crews, to keep at a reasonable distance from the pens and yards. It is
safer for one man to have exclusive care of healthy hogs during the hog
cholera season, and this man should be very careful where he goes with
reference to possible infection. Special fencing or other provisions
should be made wherever practical to keep dogs out of the pens and
yards, for, under certain conditions, dogs become very active agents in
spreading the disease.

The owner of a healthy herd should be very careful about buying in hogs
for feeding or breeding purposes, and, in the Western states especially,
all public stock yards and stock cars must be regarded as possible
sources of spread. Hogs coming into the herd for breeding purposes, if
by rail, should be shipped in other than stock cars, and should not be
unloaded so as to go through stock yards. All new hogs coming on to a
farm where the disease has not appeared, should be kept carefully apart
from the herd for from two to three weeks after arrival. The disease may
thus have time to develop, if the animals have been infected before
shipment or en route. It is decidedly worth while to be careful about
clean feeding, for it seems probable that this is a common method by
which infection enters the body. This being the case, troughs and
feeding floors should be frequently disinfected with steam, boiling
water, or a very dilute corrosive sublimate solution (1:1,000 dissolved
in water), with the troughs subsequently rinsed out with plain water. Or
the troughs and feeding floors may be disinfected with any of the coal
tar disinfectants if they are used in sufficient strength. These are not
poisonous in any probable quantity which hogs would get.


=A Disastrous Experience.=--The farmer should be especially careful
about buying hogs out of stock yards. Some years ago a certain Minnesota
farmer purchased a lot of feeders from Sioux City and took them home to
his farm. In about two weeks his hogs commenced dying. A little later
hogs previously on the farm began dying. In a little while he was losing
hogs at the rate of 25 a day, losing a total of about 200. This loss of
200 hogs was scarcely a drop in the bucket--too small for consideration
in comparison with the loss which this outbreak cost the state, for,
with some others coming into the state from Iowa and Nebraska, this
outbreak cost the state, as carefully estimated, about $1,250,000 during
that one year. As soon as the Minnesota farmer here referred to realized
that he had cholera and was liable to lose a large portion of his herd,
he shipped out a lot of fat hogs ready for market. These were yarded for
a time in the public stock yards of his town, and one of them died while
waiting for shipment. This hog was left for a day or so in the yard.
Later a carload of feeding hogs was shipped in from a point in South
Dakota, where they had never had hog cholera. These South Dakota hogs
were unloaded into the yards where the fat hog had died some time
before, and were sold out from there by auction.

It was a very interesting study to follow the resulting outbreaks; but a
very serious matter for the owner and for that entire portion of the
state. Practically every farmer who bought hogs at this sale, and very
many of those who walked around the yards looking at the hogs, but
without buying, had hog cholera on their farms in a very uniform period
after the sale. Surely the moral of this tale is so self-evident as to
need no further suggestion.


=Cleaning Up.=--Troughs and feeding floors, at least, and, if
practicable, the hog house also, should be kept clean and frequently
disinfected during an outbreak. When the outbreak appears to be over,
the owner must decide as to just what he will do in the way of
disinfection and cleaning up, or whether he will stay out of the hog
business for a year and allow the infection to die out. This is, of
course, without regard for the possibility of putting in vaccinated and
immune hogs. Feeding troughs and feeding floors and the hog house in
general, may be disinfected if of reasonably good construction, by a
thorough cleaning and then by one of the methods suggested under
prevention. If the sick hogs have been kept in an old straw shed or in
an old hog house that is about ready to fall down anyway, by all means
the best method of disinfection is by burning. Without disinfection or
burning the owner cannot be safe in putting in susceptible hogs within
much less than a year after the last hog died or recovered. The slow old
chronic cases that go dragging around at the end of an outbreak should
usually be killed and safely buried, for it is rarely profitable to put
such hogs in shape for market. It might possibly be worth while to hold
such a one over and nurse them along, in case of valuable brood sows,
for hogs having recovered from cholera are usually immune for life.

Brood sows which have had the disease and recovered usually give
something more than natural immunity to their offspring. But the degree
of immunity so conferred is so variable in degree and uncertain
otherwise that it cannot be depended upon as a routine method of
establishing immune herds. Yards may be practically disinfected by
plowing or by burning off a good layer of straw.


=Hog Cholera Vaccination.=--Generally stated, this vaccine consists of
two parts: (a) Blood serum from the body of a specially immunized hog;
and (b) virulent blood serum from the body of a hog about to die from
cholera. The general theory upon which this double vaccine is used is
that of giving the animal an infectious disease and at the same time a
treatment which enables the animal to resist the infection. When the hog
is through with it he is in exactly the same condition as though he had
gone through a natural exposure and recovered.


=General Method.=--We start this work with certain hogs that are immune
usually because they have passed through an outbreak. It has been shown
that when such immune hogs are treated with large injections of virulent
blood under the skin or into a vein, that they do not usually become
sick, but their own blood develops a peculiar property that gives
protection to other hogs that are naturally susceptible.

When the blood or rather blood serum from this specially treated immune
hog is injected into the bodies of healthy susceptible hogs, the latter
becomes likewise immune, but the immunity so gained lasts only a short
time, possibly four to six weeks, and is then gradually lost. If we give
a small injection of virulent blood at the same time, or soon after the
immunizing serum is given, then the treated hog becomes immune for a
long period, perhaps for life.


=The Serum Hog.=--The specially immunized hog which produces this
immunizing serum is known as a hyperimmune, and to save words will be
hereafter mentioned as such. The simply immune hog may be prepared for
producing serum in either one of three ways. (1) By three rapidly
increasing doses of virulent blood serum injected under the skin at
intervals of seven to ten days; (2) by one enormously large injection of
virulent serum under the skin; (3) by injecting virulent blood in
smaller doses directly into the blood circulation.

In this work an ordinary immune hog weighing 100 pounds is given a quart
of very virulent blood, a teaspoon of which similarly injected would
kill a hog that was not immune. In other words the immune, and
especially the hyperimmune hog, have developed certain properties in
their blood antagonistic to hog cholera virus.


=Vaccination.=--We have two possible methods of vaccinating or
immunizing susceptible hogs (a) Serum only. This is by the injection
under the skin of serum from the body of a hyperimmune hog and gives
immediate but temporary immunity lasting, as already stated, several
weeks. If this animal, during the period of immunity, is exposed to
natural infection, he becomes protected for a very long period, perhaps
for life. (b) Simultaneous. The second method of vaccination consists of
injecting immunizing blood serum into one thigh and a small amount of
disease-producing serum at the same time, or soon after, into the other
thigh, thus giving the animal the cholera and a cure for it at the same
time. If the immunizing serum is potent and the virulent serum is really
virulent, then the animal so treated becomes permanently immune.

The serum-only method is usually preferred in actual outbreaks and for
hogs not yet sick, because this gives immediate protection, and the
hogs, being naturally exposed, usually develop a permanent immunity. The
simultaneous method of vaccination is preferred where we are very
confident of the serum’s potency against the virulent blood, and for
hogs that have not yet been infected. It may yet be found wise to use
this method even in outbreaks.


=Vaccination Does Not Spread Cholera.=--Every intelligent stockman who
reads this will probably ask if there is not danger of scattering
cholera by this simultaneous vaccination into districts where it has not
yet appeared. A considerable amount of direct evidence on this point is
better than any amount of theorizing and personal opinions. This
evidence all agrees that unless the vaccinated hogs become distinctly
sick as a result of the vaccination (which can occur, and does very
often), that there is practically no danger of disseminating the
disease. This is especially true since all hogs on the farm are supposed
to have been treated and are immune, and, therefore, incapable of
developing cholera and so spreading the disease. It does occur, even
with good serum, perhaps, that an occasional hog may become a little
sick, and very rarely even die, as a result of vaccination. But with
good serum given in standard dose and virulent blood also given in
proper dose, the risk of this is so small that it may be safely
disregarded and especially when all hogs on the farm or that may be
exposed with such sick hogs have been treated.


=HOLLOW HORN.=--A common term to denote a diseased condition of the
blood. The horn is not hollow and never is. The old quack method of
boring a hole in the horn with a gimlet and squirting turpentine into
the orifice is both cruel and ridiculous. While in fact the temperature
of the horn is low, it is because of the general poverty of the blood of
the animal. There is no merit in this kind of treatment. The most common
symptoms are general debility, scanty flesh, scurvy coat and coarse
hair. The appetite is also irregular and at times greedy. Treatment is
in line of better food and general improvement of the system. If lice
are found on the body, they must be destroyed by disinfectants and
washes. A tonic, consisting of 2 teaspoonfuls of sulphate of iron, 1
teaspoonful of powdered nux vomica and 4 tablespoonfuls of ground
gentian root given each day in the food or as a drench, will be very
helpful in toning up the system and in enriching the blood. The most
important factor of the treatment, however, is in nutritious, wholesome
food.


=HOOF CRACKS.=--See Sand Cracks.


=HORN FLY.=--A small insect about half as large as the common house
flies, and very much like them in appearance. Horn flies swarm about the
head and settle near the base of the horn, where they bite and cause
much irritation. They also attack cattle on the back and sides and
flank. The fly mixtures that are commonly advertised, and applied by
means of a hand-spray, are excellent for keeping the pests away. A good
home mixture to apply at the base of the horns is made of pine tar,
kerosene, and fish oil. Use this in equal parts, and apply with a brush.


=HOVEN.=--See Bloating in Cattle.


=HYDROCEPHALUS.=--See Water in the Brain.


=HYDROPHOBIA=, also called rabies and mad dog, is an infectious disease
caused by some invisible organism. The disease is transmitted from one
animal to another by the bite of an animal which is suffering with the
disease or by direct inoculation. It is more common in the dog than any
other animal, from the fact that dogs run at large and have a tendency
to bite other dogs with which they come in contact while they are
suffering with the disease.

The dog shows two forms, furious and dumb. In the furious form the
animal at first seeks dark places, but is usually restless and will
move from one place to another. This condition lasts for a day or two,
after which time he becomes more restless and may go 30 miles in a day.
He will drink water, eat sticks, stones, and bite other dogs, horses,
and cattle, less often man. This condition will last from one to four
days, and then the dog becomes partly paralyzed, so that he can no
longer swallow, or his legs may be affected, so that he will lie in one
place, and usually dies after a few days longer. In the dumb form, the
animal seeks dark places, is rather restless, the throat and lower jaw
become paralyzed, he is unable to swallow or to close his mouth and,
therefore, cannot bite. Sometimes they will change from one form of
symptoms to the other.

In the horse the symptoms vary somewhat from those in the dog. The horse
is restless, usually violent and will kick and bite, oftentimes showing
sexual excitement. He may break his teeth on the manger and oftentimes
bites his own flesh at the place where he has been bitten by the dog.
The symptoms usually develop in from eight to twenty-eight days after
the animal is bitten, but may not develop for six months. The disease
runs its course in from two to ten days, with a fatal termination.

There is no treatment for the disease after the symptoms have developed.
In case man is bitten he should take the “Pasteur” treatment, which is a
preventive, and it should be taken in a very short time after being
bitten. After the symptoms begin to show it is too late to take
treatment.


=HYDROTHORAX.=--See Water in the Chest.


=IMPACTION OF RUMEN.=--A continued distention of the rumen caused by
large quantities of undigested material lodging in the rumen.
Inflammation often results, with distress and pain manifest. If relief
is not attained the walls of the rumen become paralyzed. Associated with
the disturbances the animal is dull, the left side swollen, the
breathing and pulse increase and the back aches. When lying down, the
left side is always up. In treating, cold water dashed over the back and
loins is recommended. A strong physic of Epsom salts and ginger will aid
in stimulating the secretions and may bring relief. If gas accumulates
so as to threaten the life of the animal, the trocar and canula should
be used. If these are not available, use the knife, as described for
hoven or bloat. In some cases the impaction becomes so pronounced as to
resist ordinary treatment, when extreme measures will be necessary if
the animal is to be saved. Better call your veterinarian and open the
rumen in order to remove the contents with the hand. The operation is as
follows: At the point midway between the point of the hip and the last
rib, and down about four inches from the backbone, an opening is made
large enough to admit the hand. After the opening is made the edges are
stitched to prevent any material from getting between the skin and the
rumen wall. Now remove the greater part of the accumulated material;
this done, the rumen, the muscles and the skin are each in turn
stitched, the wound dressed and the animal given stimulating medicines.
A splendid tonic consists of 4 tablespoonfuls each of ginger, tincture
of gentian and tincture of iron. Give this tonic daily and until the
animal has fully recovered.


=INDIGESTION.=--Failure to digest food with abdominal pains and
indisposition resulting. Bad food and improper management are back of
the trouble in most instances. Mild cases require no treatment. A
light, laxative diet is desirable for stubborn cases. If possible turn
the animals on fresh grass. Jamaica ginger is generally prescribed for
indigestion. Give 8 tablespoonfuls in a pint of warm water three times a
day as a drench. Follow this with condition powders, or some good
digestive tonic. After recovery see that the diet is varied and that
laxative and succulent foods are supplied.


=INFECTIOUS PNEUMONIA.=--As the name indicates, this is an infectious
trouble frequently extending over considerable areas and occurs among
both horses and cattle. It is very similar in its action to ordinary
pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs. However, it does not seem to be
so acute in its action. The same treatment is applied to cases of this
kind as to ordinary pneumonia. When its presence becomes known, it is
wise to remove all healthy animals to some other quarters. This lessens
the danger of infection to healthy animals. After the disease has run
its course, remove all litter and manure from the stables, thoroughly
air out, admit as much sunlight as possible, and disinfect all walls and
floors. A coat of whitewash on the ceiling and walls is desirable. The
floors should be literally wet with disinfectant fluid, which should be
admitted to all cracks and open spaces.


=INFECTIOUS ANEMIA IN HORSES.=--See Swamp Fever.


=INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.=--Sometimes this disease is called
enteritis. It frequently follows severe cases of colic. It is the result
of inflammation caused by indigestible material lodging in the stomach
and intestines of animals. It may, however, result from other things
that irritate the bowels. When first noticed, a general depression
prevails, with signs of pain in the bowels; breathing is quickened and
frequently a chill shows itself. The horse acts very much as if he had a
case of colic. As the disease progresses the pain increases and the
pulse rises. In a few hours the pain becomes very severe and the animal
is in great agony all over; he breathes heavy, the legs and ears are
cold and clammy and the pulse very high. In severe cases the pulse
reaches to 100 and 105 beats a minute. The horse now is very ill indeed.
He shows great weakness. It is very unlikely that he will survive more
than a day or two. The disease usually runs from ten to fifteen hours,
and unless there is a change for the better, death results.

When far advanced there is little likelihood of successful treatment.
Success lies only in early work, taking the disease in time. A
satisfactory drench is made of 4 tablespoonfuls of tincture of laudanum,
10 to 15 drops of tincture of aconite, 1 tablespoonful of common soda,
and 1 tablespoonful of ginger. These are mixed in a pint of warm water
and given as a drench. Repeat this every hour until the animal gets
relief. A mustard plaster gives relief when applied to the belly. A
physic is not considered advisable, as it increases the
inflammation--just what is not wanted at all.

The most rational treatment consists in allaying the pain. Opium in
teaspoonful doses every hour until the pain is relieved is helpful. Some
veterinary practitioners use 10 grains of morphia and 4 tablespoonfuls
of chloral hydrate in syrup and water for each dose. This dose is
repeated every two or three hours until the symptoms abate.

The diet should be carefully watched in diseases of this kind. Bran
mashes made with linseed tea or slippery elm bark are suitable. Boiled
food is better than uncooked food. Good water frequently and in small
quantities is desirable. Skimmed milk is excellent and may be fed for a
week or two at a time. This food often effects a cure without any other
aid.


=INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.=--This is a common disease in farm stock.
The disease occurs most frequently in late fall or winter or early
spring, and is due to exposure while the animal is still warm and hot;
bad ventilation influences it. Authorities now generally believe it to
be a germ disease and infectious. One of the first things noticed is the
shivering of the animal and then a fevered condition; the animal seems
to be hot, then cold; a peculiar breathing is noticed; the pulse
quickens, ranges from 60 to 70 beats a minute; the eyelids on the inside
take a scarlet hue. The animal does not eat, stands up much of the time
with the head down and the ears lopped over; a grating sound is noticed
when the ear is placed to the chest. Frequently distress is experienced
in the bowels; constipation follows and the temperature rises gradually
until it reaches 105 degrees, which is reached about the sixth or
seventh day. If recovery does not follow the appetite will disappear,
the mouth become cold, the breath heavy and disagreeable and the pulse
feeble, frequently not noticeable at all.

After the case assumes a more favorable aspect, an effort should be made
to keep the animal comfortable and in as good condition as possible. It
is therefore advisable to keep it well blanketed, the legs bandaged and
rubbed. The patient should be kept also in a warm stall where good air
is available. Good food that is nourishing and easily digested should be
provided. Sweet milk is good, and raw eggs mixed in the gruel are
excellent also. A compress over the lungs does much good. The compress
should be made out of heavy cloth, frequently rinsed in cold water and
then placed over the lungs where they are covered with heavy, dry
cloths. On recovery, rub the sides of the chest so as to thoroughly dry
the surface. A mustard plaster, after the compress has been removed, is
quite generally used. A stimulating medicine may be given during the
early stages. Use a drench, consisting of 8 tablespoonfuls of whiskey to
4 tablespoonfuls of sweet spirits of niter. If the animal is in very
great distress, give a drench every two or three hours consisting of 8
to 10 drops of Fleming’s tincture of aconite, 2 tablespoonfuls of
laudanum mixed with a pint of cold water.

After the animal is on the road to recovery, stop the use of these
medicines and give a tonic consisting of nitrate of potash or saltpeter
and ground gentian root, half and half. Give a teaspoonful three times a
day. While the animal is sick, a little boiled flaxseed mixed with a
soft food will keep the bowels regular. It is not wise to give
purgatives, hence it is wise to give an injection consisting of warm
soapy water, so as to empty the bowels. From two to four weeks of rest
and care should be allowed for complete recovery.


=INFLUENZA.=--A specific disease of the horse affecting the mucous
membrane of the air passages. When the mucous membrane of the eyelids is
affected, pink eye results. Sometimes the mucous membrane of the
intestines is affected, in which case colic or inflammation of the
bowels results. The common cause is exposure to cold. If no work be
required, plenty of fresh air be supplied, no drafts admitted and
careful nursing otherwise, the disease will run its course in from two
to three weeks and no medicines will be necessary. In cases where
considerable cough prevails, the custom of putting a piece of camphor
about the size of an egg in a pail of boiling water and holding the
horse’s head over it from a quarter to a half hour at a time is to be
commended. The bowels should be kept free and open. Any of the ordinary
purgatives will do. If weakness occurs, give 4 tablespoonfuls each of
tincture of ginger, ground gentian root and sweet spirits of niter in a
half pint of water three times a day. Two tablespoonfuls of nitrate of
potassium given once or twice each day in the drinking water is also
desirable. As the trouble abates, the medicines suggested before may be
dropped and in their place a teaspoonful of sulphate of iron and a
tablespoonful of ground gentian root may be given daily in a bran mash
or oatmeal gruel.


=INTESTINAL WORMS IN HORSES.=--Intestinal worms may be classed as large
and small. The large worms inhabit the small intestines, and the small
ones the large intestines, the larger class of worms being more readily
reached by worm destroyers than are the smaller ones, as the small
intestines begin at the stomach and as remedies leave the stomach, the
worm soon receives the dose prepared for it, while if one dose has to
pass through about 60 feet of intestines before reaching the smaller
worms in the larger intestines, much of the worm remedy is lost by
mingling with the food, and diluted by mixing with the digestive fluids.
Thus what is a remedy for the large species of worms will have little
effect upon the smaller ones.

As a farmer’s dose for the larger species of worms, none, perhaps, is
better than the following: Oil of turpentine, 2 ounces; extract or oil
of male fern, one half ounce, mixed with 4 ounces of castor oil and 8
ounces of pure raw linseed oil, with half a pint of new milk, and given
after the horse has fasted for about 14 hours. Repeat the dose in a
week; then follow with two worm powders, common smoking tobacco, eight
ounces; powdered worm seed, 6 ounces; powdered sulphate of iron, 4
ounces; mix with one-half pound each of salt and granulated sugar. Every
morning before the horse is fed any other food, place a heaping
tablespoonful of the powder in four quarts of wet wheat bran and allow
the horse to eat it; continue for ten days and the horse will be
practically rid of worms of the larger species. Colts should receive
smaller doses in proportion to age.

The small worms need the worm powder to be given in the wheat bran every
morning for fully two weeks. Then follow with an ounce dose of barbadoes
aloes and a tablespoonful of ginger given by mixing with about 12 ounces
of warm water and a gill of common molasses; wait a week and repeat the
powder treatment and follow with the aloes. In a case of the very small
or rectal worms (pin worms) always use rectal injections, a good enema
being made by steeping for two hours one pound of quassia chips in a
gallon of soft water; strain and add two ounces of common hard soap; use
the whole at once, using at about blood temperature after the soap has
dissolved. Repeat in three days and continue as long as worms are being
brought away by the enemas.


=INTESTINAL WORMS IN SHEEP.=--See Stomach and Intestinal Worms in Sheep.


=ITCH.=--See Scab in Cattle.


=JAUNDICE.=--Until of recent date the disease in the human so common at
certain seasons of the year was unknown among animals, or, at least, if
present had never been discovered by the veterinary profession. But be
that as it may, we are now finding it in plenty among horses of all
ages, from colts up to aged horses; very prevalent among sheep, and
quite frequent among cattle. The early writers on veterinary science
usually attributed the cause to gall stones. But that theory can hardly
be tenable in this country, where we find it essentially more prevalent
on low, marshy soils or on the hill lands that have been long unplowed,
where animals are pastured, or hays are cut. The general symptoms of it
are a general dullness, hanging of the head as though it ached, or
pressing the head, if the animal be a bovine or sheep, against the barn
or stall. The tongue will be found dry or covered with a thick, sticky
slime. The membranes of the eyeball of a yellowish cast. In horses the
tongue will usually have a black coating. The appetite in all animals is
capricious. They will eat well one day and scarcely touch food the next.
As a rule, they will manifest great thirst, yet will drink but little.
There are exceptions to this, however. The voidings are not uniform.
Sometime the urine is quite high colored; at other times not. But, as a
rule, it is scanty. The feces are sometimes quite hard and covered with
a shiny slime. At other times there will be extreme looseness of the
evacuations. These last symptoms are to be well considered in using a
treatment when the voidings are hard and slimy. In case it is a horse
that is ailing, a physic of aloes should be given, one ounce being the
dose for a thousand pounds of horse, and two teaspoonfuls of podophylin.
Give this dissolved in water and pour down as a drench, and follow with
a bitter tonic for from two to four weeks, or until the voidings are
normal and all scurf is removed from the tongue. As a tonic for this
none is better than a mixture of powdered gentian root, six ounces,
powdered golden seal 2 ounces, powdered sulphate of iron 4 ounces, well
mixed in 1 pound of common salt. Give in the feed a tablespoonful in
ground oats three times a day, until improvement takes place. Then drop
to twice a day and later once a day. In case of the bowels being very
loose always give a pint dose of a mixture of castor oil 4 ounces, pure
raw linseed oil 12 ounces. Then follow with the tonic powder named. The
symptoms in cattle are quite similar to those of the horse, except the
bovine’s eyes usually discharge some, yet not profusely, and there are
frequently puffy swellings beneath their lower jaws. In case their
bowels are abnormally loose, give the oil as for the horse. If
constipated give from one to two pounds of Epsom salts at one dose as
the physic, with the podophylin added as for the horse, and follow with
the same tonic powder. In the case of sheep, which are by nature
constipated animals, nothing equals a ten-grain dose of calomel,
followed the next day with a four or six-ounce dose of Epsom salts
(sulphate of magnesia), and as sheep are reluctant to eat any tonics in
their feed, we are compelled to pour their medicine down them. Mix
together 4 ounces each of the tincture of gentian, golden seal, ginger
and iron, and give a tablespoonful twice a day in a half pint of water.
But always give the calomel, as it will clean out the liver of a sheep
as no other known agent will. The symptoms are much the same as in
cattle. Begin treatment early or success will not follow.


=KIDNEY WORMS.=--The hog is mostly affected with these worms, although
they have been found in the dog also. Death does not, as a rule, follow
the infestation unless in an aggravated form. Obviously there is no
remedy.

[Illustration: KIDNEY WORMS IN THE HOG

While worms are occasionally found in the kidneys, they do not
frequently cause disease or death.]


=KNEE SPRUNG.=--A condition in which the knees bend forward as the
result of contraction of tendons located along the back of the leg. In
aggravated cases the tendons should be cut. If this is to be done only a
skilled surgeon should be allowed to perform the operation.


=LAMINITIS.=--See Founder.


=LICE.=--Farm animals, especially those housed in stables more or less
infested with insects and vermin, are commonly troubled with lice.
Animals in good health resist the insects, but those already in a
non-thrifty condition do not fare so well. Lice cause a good deal of
annoyance to farm stock, inasmuch as they bite the skin, suck out blood,
and thus cause considerable irritation. Lice can be seen with the naked
eye. Infestation, as a rule, takes place in filthy quarters, and the
best means of disinfecting such places is by the use of a spray of
kerosene. One of the best means of applying this to hogs consists in
rubbing posts, which are constantly smeared with kerosene. In this way
the hogs are induced to treat themselves. Infected hogs may also be
treated by pouring the kerosene directly over the infested parts, like
the neck, shoulder and back. Dipping tanks made of cement or wood are
frequently located in the run-yards, in which is placed some
disinfectant fluid. Hogs use these small tanks as wallows, and in this
way they disinfect themselves.

For horses and cattle a good remedy is made as follows: Boil for an hour
8 tablespoonfuls of arsenic, 8 tablespoonfuls of soda ash and 16
tablespoonfuls of soft soap in two gallons of water. After being
prepared by boiling, add enough water to make two gallons. When cool,
wet the animal all over with a little of it, using a brush or currycomb
to get it into the skin. Another good remedy is made of boiling
stavesacre seeds, 1 part to 20 parts of water, for an hour and let it
simmer for another hour; then add water to make it up to the original
bulk. This applied to the affected parts brings quick relief. It is
advisable to repeat the application in a week or ten days, so as to
catch any new lice from any eggs that were not caught by the first
application. A very common treatment is secured by mixing a pint of
linseed oil, 8 tablespoonfuls of oil of tar, and 8 tablespoonfuls of
sulphur. This is then rubbed on the affected parts once a day for two
days and allowed to remain for a few days, after which it is washed off
with soap and water. In serious cases, the application should be
repeated within a week or so.


=LIVER FLUKES.=--These are parasites usually found in the liver or its
ducts. At times they are present in great numbers, giving rise to a
serious disease called liver rot. When the fertilized eggs are
discharged in the excrement of diseased animals and fall in fresh water
they hatch out and are taken into the body by sheep and cattle, either
in the food or drink. In a short time thereafter they have entrenched
themselves in the liver of cattle or sheep.

[Illustration: LIVER FLUKE]

A few liver flukes in an animal causes little trouble, as the injury is
largely mechanical anyway. No peculiar symptoms are conspicuous when
only a few flukes are present. The greatest damage is done when hundreds
of flukes develop in a single individual. In these cases the flow of the
bike is checked. As result the health becomes impaired and the usual
penalties of malnutrition follow. Swelling of the jaws and diarrhœa are
often noticed in connection with the disease.

When the host is badly infected with the flukes and in a badly run-down
condition the trouble is always serious, and medicinal treatment is of
little real value. Tonics and good food may be given to help along--but
death usually follows. Salt is helpful as the flukes are sensitive to
it. If an animal that has succumbed to the disease be examined, the
liver will be observed to be fairly rotten as a result of the inroads of
the parasites.

Treatment is in line of prevention only. Clean, pure fresh water, free
of the eggs or the parasites, is necessary if the trouble is to be
eradicated. The old ponds, ordinarily filled with stagnant water, should
be drained. They harbor many bad parasites, and their harm is far beyond
their value. When water for sheep and cattle is taken from pure streams
or wells the trouble from liver flukes and other parasites is reduced to
a minimum.


=LOCKJAW.=--This disease, very frequently called tetanus, is an
infectious disease in which the body muscles are spasmodically
contracted or stiffened. The muscles that move the jaw are frequently
affected and the animal is unable to open the mouth. Because of this
condition the disease is commonly known as lockjaw.

The spread of the disease does not occur through healthy animals coming
in contact with animals having tetanus, but by inoculation. The germ of
tetanus is present in the soil, manure and dust. It enters the body by
way of wounds, especially punctured and bruised wounds. The injury may
result from stepping on a nail, and the germs are planted in the deeper
structures of the foot. Such a wound usually has poor drainage, the horn
of the hoof closing the mouth or opening. Here the germs grow and
produce a poisonous toxin that is said to be the most powerful produced
by any bacteria. This toxin acts on the nerve centers of the brain and
spinal cord, causing extensive spasmodic contraction of the body
muscles.

Tetanus sometimes occurs in the absence of any noticeable wound. It may
be in such cases that the seat of the infection is a slight abrasion of
the skin, or the lining membranes of the respiratory and digestive
tracts. The tetanus bacillus is a slender, spore-producing bacterium.
The spore is located at one end of the rod in the form of a round head,
that gives the organism a pin shape, hence the name of pin bacillus. It
is very resistant to outside conditions and the action of the chemical
disinfectants. It is because of its ability to resist the action of
disinfectants and the fact that it develops best when protected or
covered by the tissues and wound secretions, that this disease so often
follows ordinary wound treatment.

[Illustration: LOCKJAW

Note the rigid, tense position of the muscles.]

From a few days to several weeks may lapse from the time of infection
with the germs until the development of the stiffness and spasms.
Sometimes the wound by which the organism has entered the tissues has
healed before the symptoms of tetanus are manifested. In case the
symptoms develop a few days after the inoculation the disease is severe
or acute in form, and less violent or subacute if the symptoms are
manifested after the second week. The above statement does not hold true
in all cases, but it may be considered true in a general way.

Of the domestic animals the horse is the most commonly affected. The
symptoms shown by this animal are very characteristic. Any person that
has had the opportunity to see and examine a horse suffering from
tetanus should have no trouble in recognizing the disease in other
animals.


=The Characteristic Symptom= is the spasmodic contraction of the
muscles. This may vary in the different individuals, depending on the
susceptibility of the animal and the quantity of poisonous toxin present
in the system. There is at first a slight stiffness of the muscles of
the back, neck, head, and limbs, and the animal is more nervous than
common. A noise in the stable or a slap with the hand may increase the
stiffness and contractions temporarily. The contracted condition of the
muscles of the eye, are, perhaps, the most noticeable early in the
disease. These muscles pull the eyeball backwards, the fatty cushion is
pressed on and the third eyelid protrudes, covering at times from
one-third to two-thirds of the front part of the eye. In the severe form
of the disease the muscles feel hard, especially those of the back and
neck, and the animal moves with difficulty. In addition to the muscular
symptoms, the respiration and pulse beats are quickened and the body
temperature higher than normal. The evidence of suffering from the
contracted condition of the muscles is very marked, and, unless
supported in some way, the animal may fall to the floor. If the symptoms
develop a few days after infection, the animal usually dies. The acute
form is very fatal, but in the mild or subacute form the chance for
making a recovery is good.


=Tetanus Is a Preventable Disease.= It may be largely prevented by the
careful disinfection of wounds, and the use of anti-tetanic serum. In
most localities the proper treatment of the wound is a sufficient
preventive measure, but in localities and stables where the disease is
common the anti-tetanic serum should be used. Ordinary cleansing of a
wound, as practiced by most stockmen, is not sufficient to destroy the
bacillus of tetanus. The wound must be carefully cleaned, disinfected
and prepared for healing. This should be kept in mind when treating a
wound, and instead of using an agent that we know little about, we
should secure reliable information regarding the different commercial
disinfectants and methods of caring for wounds. That class known as tar
disinfectants is most commonly used. The better grade belonging to this
class should be used.

If anti-tetanic serum is used, it should be injected as soon after the
injury has occurred as possible. The injection is made hypodermically,
usually beneath the skin on the side of the neck. Large doses of
anti-tetanic serum given after the symptoms have developed may assist
recovery. However, in the severe form of the disease this treatment is
uncertain.

When the animal comes down with the disease, it should be made as
comfortable as possible. The quarters should be roomy, quiet, clean, and
well ventilated. It is advisable to support the horse with a sling
unless the animal is worried or made nervous by it. This prevents his
becoming tired and falling down. We should give the animal the best of
care in the way of regulating the diet, etc., but should avoid annoying
it by our attention. Medicinal treatment is of little benefit and should
be given a secondary place. In fact, dosing the animal with medicine,
especially if large doses are given, may do more harm than good in the
treatment of this disease.


=LOCO DISEASE.=--The word loco is a Spanish word, and means crazy. Loco
disease is a disease of the brain and nervous system, especially of
horses and cattle, but may also affect other animals. It results from
eating any one of a number of poisonous plants called loco which grow
upon the dry, sandy prairies of some parts of the Western United States.

In winter and early spring, when there is little or no grass, some
animals acquire an appetite for this plant, and soon refuse all other
kinds of food. When addicted to the weed an animal loses flesh rapidly,
the eyesight becomes affected--often it has no knowledge of
distance--and frequently when made to step over a board or rail will
jump over it as though it were several feet high. Later, in the course
of the disease, the brain becomes more affected and the animal acts more
or less crazy, at times quite violent, at others depressed and dull.

Should the animal live through the first attack it may linger for months
or even years, but it usually dies as a result of the attack. Frequently
some peculiar “foolish” habit follows the animals through life. Some
have a nervous fit when excited or warmed up, others will not lead and
some you cannot drive at all. There is no cure for the trouble. All that
can be done is to prevent the habit from being formed or by removing the
animal from temptation and furnishing wholesome, nutritious food.


=LUMPY JAW.=--See Actinomycosis.


=LUNGS, CONGESTION OF.=--A filling of the lungs with blood. This is very
common with horses in winter and is most frequently due to a chill.
Animals that have been put to heavy work, or are in a weakened
condition, are frequently susceptible if left standing in a draft while
still warm. Sluggishness is noticed, first followed by trembling at the
flank, heavy breathing; the pulse will be noted as quick, but weak; a
gurgling sound will be noted if the ear is placed against the chest. The
best treatment is such as gives quick relief. If at work, place the
horse at rest at once in the stable and cover with blanket. Have plenty
of fresh air admitted, but do not allow a draft to blow over the
patient. Assist circulation as much as possible by rubbing of the legs
and apply cold pad to the chest. A mustard plaster applied over the
chest is very good. A good drench consists of alcohol in 2 ounce doses,
well diluted in water; at the same time another drench consisting of 4
tablespoonfuls of sweet spirits of niter and 2 tablespoonfuls of
laudanum, mixed with a pint of water, is also very good. If the
conditions indicate that the lungs are full of blood, add 10 drops of
Fleming’s tincture of aconite to the drench. The drenches may be given
two or three hours apart until relief comes, at which time quiet is
advised, although a little gentle walking for exercise is advisable.

From this time on treat the animal as a patient, giving easily digested
foods. A tonic consisting of ground gentian root and nitrate of potash,
half and half, is excellent. Give a teaspoonful of this in the feed
three times a day.


=LUNG FEVER.=--See Inflammation of the Lungs.


=LUNG WORMS IN LAMBS AND CALVES.=--It has been proven in years gone by
that the common spirits of turpentine, when mixed with salt in
proportions of a gill of turpentine to four quarts of common fine salt
and placed in a covered box so constructed that sheep and calves can get
their head in and eat the salt (yet the salt be protected from the
weather), will practically prevent an infection. Some have advised the
mixing of a half pint of sublimed sulphur with the salt and turpentine.
There can be no objection to the sulphur when added in the proportions
named. This remedy is not a cure but a preventive. In fact there is no
cure, as these worms are in the bronchial tubes and lungs, where no worm
destroyer can reach them directly. But when the lamb or calf daily
partakes of even a few drops of turpentine, the whole system becomes, to
an extent, infected with the turpentine, and as the young worms come
into existence, their home in the lungs becomes a very unhealthy home
for them and they fail to mature. In some cases mature worms have been
removed by injecting a mixture of turpentine, chloroform and olive oil
into the windpipe, using about a teaspoonful of this mixture. Its effect
is to stupefy the worms that it touches, and they may be coughed out by
the suffering lamb or calf. The fumes of burning sulphur has also been
advised by some veterinarians. But both remedies are as liable to kill
as cure, and are by no means always successful. The farmer’s business
should be to prevent, not cure, diseases of this class; therefore
prepare the salt box.

[Illustration: LYMPHANGITIS

This kind of inflammation is usually seen in the hind legs. It is most
frequent in heavy draft horses, or in coarse plethoric individuals. It
occurs most frequently after a short period of idleness.]


=LYMPHANGITIS.=--An inflammation of the lymphatics, usually of the hind
legs. Hence the name “big legs.” It is the result of too rich feeding,
and too little work in many cases on the one hand, or of overwork and
insufficient food on the other. Lymphangitis often follows other
diseases like distemper, influenza, or pneumonia, in which cases the
system is weakened and the lymphatics in abnormal condition. It shows
itself after a short period of idleness and rest. It usually begins with
a chill and a rise of temperature, which may be as much as 105 degrees,
depending on the intensity of the attack. One or both hind legs may show
swelling and be so stiff and sore after standing during the night as to
be moved only with difficulty when the horse is taken out of the stable
in the morning. The horse in moving seems able to bear little or no
weight on the affected leg. At the same time, the pulse is full and
throbby, respiration is fast, the bowels are constipated and the
appetite is lost.

In some cases the legs swell to an enormous size. If the inflammation is
not relieved in a few days, the glands get badly diseased and blood
poison may result. The disease, however, if taken in time, is easily
treated. If it is caused by overfeeding, change this; give more
exercise. When the disease is first noticed, give the horse 4
tablespoonfuls of aloes, 4 tablespoonfuls of carbonate of soda and 4
tablespoonfuls of ginger. These should be dissolved in a half pint of
boiling water, then mixed with a half pint of cold water, and then given
as a drench. If the pulse is fast, it may be made easier and slower by
giving 20 to 30 drops of tincture of aconite, every couple of hours. A
couple of tablespoonfuls of nitrate of potash in the drinking water
three times a day will increase the urine. This is desirable to do in
this disease. The leg should be bathed for at least a half an hour and
then dried and a wash consisting of 2 tablespoonfuls of acetate of
lead, 8 tablespoonfuls of tincture of opium, and a quart of water should
be applied to the legs. This should be rubbed in well with the hand
every hour. In from 20 to 30 hours, a great change for the better will
be noticed the inflammation will have been reduced; the pain will have
disappeared and the bowels will be loose and active.

From now on give general exercise at frequent periods, during the day.
In cases caused by overwork or too little food or those following
debilitating diseases, like influenza or distemper, the treatment should
be more stimulating; therefore, nutritive foods and tonics are best.
Good hay and oats and other feed of a laxative nature should be
furnished.

A preparation, consisting of 4 tablespoonfuls, each, of tincture
chloride of iron, tincture of gentian, and ginger in a pint of water
three times a day will be found both stimulating and nourishing. If the
disease has progressed so far that the legs break and show that matter
is formed, wash them with warm water and follow with acetate of lead,
sulphate of iron and carbolic acid. Use 2 tablespoonfuls of each in a
quart of water and apply twice each day. If the swelling hangs on use
Fowler’s solution of arsenic, 4 tablespoonfuls to a dose in a bran mash
once a day. Continue this for four or five weeks. A salve made of 2
teaspoonfuls of iodide and 8 tablespoonfuls of vaseline should also be
rubbed on the leg twice a week.


=MAD DOG.=--See Hydrophobia.


=MAGGOTS.=--The grubs of the ordinary flesh-flies so common about
stables and houses. The adult fly deposits the minute larvæ in fresh
meat, in wounds, and frequently in dirty wool. These become the maggots
so well known about the farm. The distress caused by these when present
in a wound is considerable, and they endanger life.

The best treatment is in line of cleanliness. Keep old wounds clean by
means of antiseptic washes and tag the sheep that no filth and dirt may
accumulate. If for any reason maggots are found, open the infected part
and remove, if possible, both the maggots and sloughed tissue. Old sores
or wounds, if they will not lend themselves to complete removal of the
maggots, should be treated with a solution of carbolic acid and water.
On some, turpentine can be used. Chloroform may be sprayed on, or
injected into the wound with almost instant results. After the maggots
are destroyed follow up the treatment with a good disinfectant until the
wound has healed.


=MALLENDERS.=--An eruption of the skin above the feet in horses. The
disease at first is very much like eczema. In time the watery fluid
dries up and the sore parts become covered with hard crusts and scabs.
The sore spots should be washed with some good disinfectant and repeated
frequently enough to destroy the infection. A moderate purge is
advisable. See that only wholesome food is provided.


=MAMMITIS.=--Inflammation of the mammary gland or udder. The disease is
frequently called caked bag and garget. In the last named, the milk
secretion is altered and appears as a thick or a stringy fluid. Heavy
milkers are most commonly affected. The udder becomes swollen, hot and
somewhat tender just before calving. The swelling may extend forward
along the belly. It often gets so severe as to require treatment. It is
in this sense physiological. In a few days after calving, as a rule, the
swelling disappears and the normal condition is regained more quickly
if the calf is allowed to suck the cow. In the first stages bloody milk
is secreted and often pus is formed in one quarter or more of the udder.
The udder should be carefully milked, cleaned, and, if the milk ducts
are closed, it may be necessary to use a milk tube. This should be used
cautiously so as not to injure the tissue of the udder and should be
perfectly clean before inserting, otherwise serious inflammation may
result. In bathing, use hot water for 15 to 20 minutes at a time, after
which rub dry and apply an ointment made by dissolving 3 tablespoonfuls
of gum camphor and 4 tablespoonfuls of fluid extract of belladonna to a
pint of clean, fresh lard. This ointment should be applied three times a
day.

A more serious form of the disease is known as contagious mammitis, and
is due to invasion of the gland by bacteria. In cases of this kind the
inflammation is more extensive and the disorder calls for more careful
treatment. Since the milk contains bad bacteria, it is necessary to
destroy them so as to prevent spreading of the disease. The milker
should have clean hands and should wash them in a disinfecting solution
before milking another cow. The milk tube may be necessary in
withdrawing the milk. After the milk has been removed from the udder,
inject a solution of peroxide of hydrogen or dioxygen or a solution of
carbolic acid, 1 part to 50 parts of boiled water. After the solution
has acted for a few minutes, it should be milked out. The external
treatment for contagious mammitis should be similar to that of ordinary
mammitis.


=MANGE.=--See Scab in Cattle.


=MILK FEVER.=--It is a remarkable fact that this disease occurs most
commonly in cows which calved easily. This is explained by the fact
that in such cases the os uteri remains relaxed for a greater length of
time than it does in cases of difficult parturition. Milk fever
generally occurs in cows which are heavy milkers, and great eaters.
Keeping the animals in permanent stables, and feeding large quantities
of rich food while they are giving no milk are predisposing causes.

The disease makes its appearance usually in from 24 to 48 hours after
parturition. It seldom occurs after the third day, and some authors
state that it has never been recognized before the starting of the milk
secretion. The most salient symptoms to the average layman would,
perhaps, be the anxious expression of the animal, bellowing and mounting
into the manger. Later they become very weak, stagger and fall, and are
unable to rise. The members are usually extended in a rigid position. A
rattling or whistling noise is heard in case the larynx is paralyzed.
The feet, ears and horns feel cold to the touch. When a case is going to
recover we see improvement as early as the second or third day. Recovery
is usually complete at the end of from two to five days.

Milk fever is one of the cases where the old maxim, an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure, is doubly applicable. If proper
precautions were taken a large number of cases could be prevented. Give
the pregnant animals daily exercise, and decrease their allowance of
food.


=Treatment Very Simple.=--Make the cow comfortable. Now give her a small
dose of Epsom salts from one-half to one pound, depending on her size.
This should be given as a drench. Animals afflicted with this ailment
swallow with difficulty. Use care that the drench does not get into the
lungs. Perhaps the most satisfactory medical treatment is to use what
is known as the Schmidt treatment. This is nothing more than injecting
into the udder a solution made by dissolving in one quart of clean
boiled water 3 teaspoonfuls of iodide of potash, after stripping all
milk from the udder. A very satisfactory way is to get a rubber tube,
attach it to a common milking tube which is placed into the teats in
turn and pour the solution into the tube by means of a funnel. By
massaging the udder the solution can be worked into each quarter in a
short time without difficulty.

In case iodide of potash is not available, inject air into the udder
after drawing out the milk. I have known of many cases where air has
been forced into the udder by means of a bicycle pump, and the animal
recovered in a very short time. If the disease does not respond to the
treatment with readiness, repeat in a few hours, say, anywhere from five
to ten hours after. Cold water or ice on the head is advisable. The use
of stimulants is also recommended. Whiskey can be given in doses of 10
to 15 tablespoonfuls and jamaica ginger 6 to 8 tablespoonfuls. Milk the
cow frequently and massage the udder, bathing in hot water.

After the cow is on the way to recovery, withhold milk-stimulating foods
for a few days and give some tonic like gentian and nux vomica, half and
half, 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls two or three times a day.


=MONDAY MORNING SICKNESS.=--See Azoturia.


=NASAL GLEET.=--When a cold or simple catarrh is neglected it may run
into a chronic condition giving rise to nasal gleet. A thin, bluish
discharge comes from the nose; and the membranes of the nostrils,
instead of being moist and pink in color, take on a leaden hue. The
coat at the same time shows unthriftiness. In such cases the face and
head may swell because the accumulated materials fail to pass out. When
these bunches are tapped with the fingers, a dull sound is heard.
Treatment consists of isolating the animals and giving them good care,
nutritious food and well-ventilated quarters. A bucket, filled with
boiling water, in which a half cup of turpentine is placed, and held
under the nose to steam the nostrils and face, is excellent. Any sort of
blanketing that will hold the steam about the head is very good to have
at hand at the time. For internal treatment give a teaspoonful of
sulphate of copper three times daily in a small bran mash; following
this drop the copper sulphate and give 2 tablespoonfuls of Fowler’s
solution of arnica twice a day in the mash. Should the bulges on the
face become large, it will be necessary to open them. Often a part of
the bone requires sawing out to get effective results. In these severe
cases it is best to have your veterinarian make the operation.


=NAVICULAR DISEASE.=--A disease of the navicular bone and the structures
surrounding it. It is called “coffin joint lameness.” This bone is
situated at the back and inferior part of the coffin joint, and acts as
a pulley over which the flexor tendon of the foot passes. Horses with
upright pasterns are most liable to it, as more weight is thrown on this
joint. Those shod with calkins on their shoes, which prevent the frog
from coming in contact with the ground, therefore causing a shock to
this joint, are also very liable to it. Some horses have hereditary
tendency to this disease. Nails penetrating too deep through the sole,
or anything that will cause inflammation of this joint, is likely to
produce navicular disease. The most prolific cause is bad shoeing. By
degrees the inflammation in a chronic form extends to other parts,
causing a shrinking of the soft parts, resulting in contraction of the
foot.

The lameness may appear suddenly and perhaps immediately after the horse
has been shod, and is then usually thought to be the fault of nailing on
the shoe. It is likely in this case that the smith has pared the sole
and frog too thin, and that the part has suffered from a bruise by the
horse stepping on something hard. After a rest it may disappear, to
return after the next drive. Sometimes the disease is of very slow
progress in one or both fore feet. The first thing that is noticed is
that the animal points its toe, and if both are affected, first one,
then the other. The animal may not be lame, but it does not step out so
well as it used to, and by degrees the part gets more tender, until the
animal begins to go lame, and the lameness gradually gets worse. There
is a form of this lameness where the animal shows stiffness and lameness
when first taken out of the stable, but, after being driven for a short
distance, it passes off, and after it stands for awhile it will start
off lame again. If this disease lasts for some time the muscles of the
chest and shoulders seem stiff and may shrink. This has been called
“chest founder” by horsemen. This is brought about by the soreness of
the feet. The horse is afraid to step out, giving it the appearance of
being stiff; the muscles of the chest and shoulders will shrink from
want of proper action, caused by the feet being sore. If there is heat
and tenderness in the hollow of the heel or a redness of the sole, and
an absence of any other disease of the foot or leg, we may consider
with almost a certainty that it is a case of navicular or coffin joint
lameness. The result is contraction of the foot.

Take off the shoes, so that the frog will rest on the ground, then
poultice the feet with bran, made up with cold water if it is a recent
case, but if it is of some months’ standing hot water is better than
cold; put the poultices into bags made a little larger than the foot;
put about two inches deep of the bran mash into the bag, then put the
foot in and fill in all around as high as the fetlock, and tie the bag
above the fetlock and around the ankle to keep it well on the foot. Wet
this several times a day and change it once daily. Continue this for two
weeks, and see that it is properly done; if not, it will be of no
service. Then blister the coronet with cantharides 2 teaspoonfuls and
lard 4 tablespoonfuls. Repeat in three weeks, and give the animal a long
rest.


=NITS.=--See Bot Flies.


=NODULAR DISEASE IN SHEEP.=--Nodules resembling those of tuberculosis
found in the intestines of sheep, are due to the presence of parasitic
worms. Profuse diarrhœa and a pronounced anemic condition prevail. A
post mortem examination of the intestines discloses the presence of
numerous nodules in the intestinal walls. If the worm is present, no
treatment is possible, for the reason that any medicine that would
affect the worm would also affect the tissues and lead to their
destruction. Prevention, therefore, is the only means of overcoming the
disease. Sheep must be kept off infested pastures, and infested pastures
must be plowed and given over to cultivated crops. Give lambs only clean
pastures to graze over. This means crop rotation in connection with
sheep husbandry. No feed that has been tramped over by infected sheep
should ever be supplied to lambs or sheep not infested with the disease.


=OBSTETRICS.=--Difficult parturition is common in some females. And
frequently others, less bothered as a rule with any difficulty at this
period, deliver their offspring only after great labor and much
difficulty. When such cases occur close vigilance not only frequently
hastens delivery, but often saves the life of either the mother or
offspring or both.

[Illustration: NATURAL PRESENTATION OF THE FOAL

In either of these cases delivery follows in the usual order without
delay or injury to the mother.]

In many instances the trouble is seated in the womb; the neck of the
womb remains closed, and even though long-continued and vigorous efforts
are made, the offspring does not arrive. In cases of this kind
assistance can be rendered which quickly removes the difficulty. First
oil the hand and forearm and work the fingers into the passage, gently
pressing it open. If the womb does not yield to this treatment saturate
a sponge or cloth with extract of belladonna and rub it around the neck,
leaving it thus for a little while. On removing the sponge the passage
will open.


=Manner of Delivery.=--The natural position of the fetus at birth calls
for the fore feet forward with the head resting on the knees. The fore
feet, therefore, in a normal delivery, are first presented and then the
head. If the fetus is not unduly large, the mother will likely force the
delivery without assistance. In case the struggle is extended gentle
assistance will be in order. This can be rendered by a gentle pull on
the legs and head. If this does not bring the offspring, you can
consider that something is wrong. However, do not be hasty, just give
time. Mares usually deliver in a few minutes and cows often require an
hour or so after labor begins. If you conclude that something is wrong
oil the hand and arm. Shove the fetus back and ascertain, if possible,
the trouble. If this examination shows dropsy of the abdomen--water in
the belly--puncture the abdomen with a knife in order that the fetus may
be delivered. If the trouble is with the head--water in the
brain--puncture the head that the water may run out, and then remove the
arm and hand. When the struggle pains come on again, give a gentle pull
and delivery will follow.

Frequently the position is changed. Sometimes but one fore foot appears
with the head, making it impossible to deliver the offspring. When a
case like this occurs, shove the fetus back and bring the unpresented
leg forward where it belongs, and then likely no further trouble will
result. If the legs are in proper place but the head turned backward, it
will be necessary to push the fetus back into the womb and bring the
head forward in position. In case the head resists your efforts, adjust
a noose over the head, and while you work with your hand inside, have an
assistant gently pull on the rope, in order to draw the head into the
proper position. After the head and fore feet are put in natural
position, delivery will follow without further difficulty.

When all four feet appear together it is necessary to push the fore feet
back into the womb just as far as it is possible to force them. This
done, pull now on the hind feet and bring the fetus out, hind feet
first. It is always a mistake to attempt delivery with the head first
when delivery has proceeded as suggested in cases of this nature.

[Illustration: ABNORMAL PRESENTATION OF THE FOAL

Delivery is not possible in either of the cases here illustrated. Where
such occur assistance must be rendered. See article on obstetrics for
treatment.]

Where delivery is attempted with the hind legs foremost, it is regarded
as safe, provided the feet come out as they should. If any difficulty is
encountered, shove the fetus back, straighten the legs, and then with
the renewal of the labor struggles assist the mother by a gentle pull on
the hind legs.

Another common presentation is where you feel nothing but the tail, rump
and hips. Adjust the fetus for proper delivery by shoving the hind end
upwards and towards the front of the womb, then slip the hand down and
get hold of the foot of the hind leg and lift upwards and backwards
until the legs are brought out into the passage. Now repeat the work for
the other leg and the job is done.

It is always a good plan, after difficult parturition, especially when
any abnormal discharge appears, to wash out the womb with warm water in
which a little carbolic acid or creolin is placed. Use this daily for a
few days.


=PALISADE WORM.=--The worms are found in the horse in two periods of
existence. The mature worms are usually found attached to the mucous
membrane of the intestinal wall of the large intestine, with the head
sunk deep for the purpose of sucking blood, which gives them the brown
or red color. The immature are found sometimes in the same organs, in a
small capsule covering, in small pellets of manure, in cavities or
cysts, varying in size from a pin-head to that of a hazel nut, in the
walls of the intestines, and also in the arteries and other structures
of the body.

When present in the kidneys or in the arteries leading to the kidneys,
or in the surrounding tissues, a horse is especially sensitive to
pressure over the loins. They have been known to cause paralysis. When
found in the brain, an animal, when working, suddenly begins to stagger,
the eyes become fixed, and the horse shows many of the symptoms of
“blind staggers.” When the large arteries of the abdomen are affected,
and this is their favorable location in the circulatory system, the
animal is frequently subject to colic, which often results in death.
This is also the case when found in great numbers in the intestines.

From a thorough investigation of a great many cases, both before and
after death, the conclusions are drawn that the parasite evolves a
poisonous substance (toxin), which, in many instances, stupefies the
brain or parts of the nervous system of the horse, and in that way
causes coma, paralysis and death of the animal.

Prevention is the best treatment. Hay and fodder from swampy land are to
be looked upon as suspicious. Pastures which are subject to overflow
should be avoided. Medicinal treatment consists of a prolonged, careful
use of some of the essential oils or other vermifuges. The ordinary
spirits of turpentine has proved a fairly good common remedy. An
ordinary animal will stand 8 tablespoonfuls of turpentine given in a
pint to a quart of raw linseed oil, thoroughly mixed. If the animal is
badly affected, the above dose may be given night and morning for two or
three days, then omit for a week or two and repeat. The remedy should be
discontinued as soon as the animal shows signs of irritation of the
kidneys.


=PARALYSIS.=--A loss of power over some of the muscles due to a
disordered state of the brain or nerves. This may result from disease or
injury or some irritation. In horses and cattle the hindquarters are not
infrequently affected in this way, the result of indigestion from
constipation or from attacks of colic. The animal shows weakness in one
hind limb, moving it with difficulty when the opposite limb may then
become affected. If the attack is very severe, the animal falls on its
haunches and may not be able to rise. Temperature, pulse and
respiration, all are rather normal. Treatment should be directed to
remove the cause of the disease. When there is colic or constipation,
give purges. A half teaspoonful of extract of nux vomica, given in a
pint of milk twice a day, is very good. Pouring cold water from a
height and then immediately hot water sometimes greatly strengthens the
muscles and has its use in treating. Rubbing the parts with mustard
stimulates them, and in some cases good results. Paralysis resulting
from injury usually disappears as the part returns to its normal state.


=PARASITES.=--These are living plants or animals that live temporarily
or continually in the bodies of other plants or animals and draw their
nourishment from their host. It is doubtful if there is a single farm
animal that does not harbor parasites at nearly all times during its
life. There may be many of these in the same individual at the same
time. Parasites may be harmful or not, as the case may be. Parasites may
be divided into two classes--plant parasites and animal parasites. The
bacteria and molds are the most important among the former, whereas in
the latter certain minute protozoa, certain forms of insects and certain
worms are the most commonly met. Such diseases as staggers,
tuberculosis, and typhoid fever are the result of bacterial diseases,
while Texas fever is an example of the protozoa class; and then the
insects and worms are types with which we are all acquainted. When a
disease is caused by either, discussion will be found under the name of
that disease.


=PARTURIENT APOPLEXY.=--See Milk Fever.


=PARTURITION, DIFFICULT.=--See Obstetrics.


=PERITONITIS.=--An inflammation of the membrane which lines the
abdominal cavity and which also invests the abdominal organs. It may be
caused from some exposure to cold after some weakening disease. Some
injury to the abdomen or belly may cause it, or it may start from some
inflammation that has attacked the stomach, liver, intestines, or the
spleen. When attacked, a slight pain is felt and the animal lies down,
stretches himself, sweats freely, and moans. Then he rises, walks about
somewhat, and all the time breathes heavy and shows much weakness. The
pulse runs up between 75 and 100 beats a minute. In time the legs and
ears get cold. A good treatment is a pint of raw linseed oil, 4
tablespoonfuls of laudanum, and 10 drops of aconite. Mix these and give
as a drench. A mustard plaster for the abdomen and something hot for the
back are desirable. In two hours, if the pain continues, give 4
tablespoonfuls of laudanum and 10 drops aconite in a pint of lukewarm
water. Use as a drench.


=PINK EYE.=--A contagious epidemic disease of the horse affecting the
animal all over and particularly the membranes of the air passages.
There is general debility, considerable cough, and a general discharge
from the nostrils. The transparent covering of the eyeball becomes
inflamed. At times the disease is very fatal, many horses succumbing to
it. It is most common in the spring.

One of the symptoms is the general weakness of the animal. He hangs his
head, and trembles; has little appetite and appears cold. The eyes show
a watery discharge and later a stare coat. The pulse at first is weak,
but quick, and later rising to 80 or 90 beats a minute. At this stage
the temperature is high, around 103 to 105 degrees. The breathing is
accelerated to about 50 times a minute. The bowels do not act, or act
very poorly, and the urine is very scanty. In treating, first isolate
the animal and disinfect the stables to prevent spreading. Any of the
common disinfectants will do.

Good nursing is necessary. Keep the horse warm with blankets. Give him
soft, nourishing food. The eyes should be bathed three or four times a
day with hot water. A little boric acid, say, a teaspoonful to a half
pint of water, is good to use as a wash for the eyes and nostrils. To
keep the kidneys active and to reduce the fever, give a tablespoonful of
nitrate of potash dissolved in water two or three times a day. If the
horse is very weak, one-half glass of whiskey in a pint of gruel three
times a day is stimulating and helpful. It is better not to give any
physic of any kind. After recovery, the horse should be given little or
no work. A long rest of several weeks is necessary.


=PLACENTA.=--The covering of the fetus, commonly called the afterbirth.
As a rule, this comes away with the birth of the offspring. Occasionally
in the cow it remains attached to the walls of the uterus, and if not
removed will cause trouble, if not sickness and death. Soon after the
birth of the calf, if the afterbirth remains, decomposition sets in and
as a result the system is more or less poisoned. The first symptoms
observed are the offensive odor, the reddish discharge and the decrease
in the milk flow.

If the afterbirth does not come away of itself, assistance is necessary.
Do this during the first or second day, or the third day at the latest.
To remove the afterbirth, tie up the cow and fasten her in a way that
she cannot jump around. Now introduce the hand and arm, after careful
washing and disinfecting and oiling, into the uterus and gradually and
gently break the buttons or attachments from the walls of the uterus
with the fingers. With patience these will come away and the whole
membrane be removed. An occasional injection is advisable. Use some good
disinfectant in the water, flush out thoroughly.


=PLEURISY.=--This disease occurs in the chest cavity and is found inside
the ribs and over the lungs. It is caused very much in the same way as
inflammation of the lungs, like exposure to cold, standing in a draft,
and cooling when warm. Some injury to the ribs may also cause the
trouble.

In the early stages the animal is noticed to shiver, the pulse is quick
and strong, and there is great pain. The breath is heavy, and this is
noticed as far back as the flanks. While the animal may lie down, its
disposition is to stand up most of the time. There is an inclination to
cough, but this is suppressed, because of the pain occasioned by it;
therefore the cough really ends in a groan rather than in a normal
cough. The extremities of the body become cold.

The best treatment endeavors to prevent the disease from developing. Do
just as you would in a case of inflammation of the lungs. Mustard
plasters for the chest on each side are good. Keep the body well
covered, including the legs and neck; have good ventilation in the
stable, but keep the patient out of any draft.

As soon as the disease is noticed, mix the following in a pint of cold
water, and give as a drench: Ten drops of aconite, a half teaspoonful of
belladonna and two tablespoonfuls of laudanum. These should be given
every two hours until the pain subsides. If the animal seems to be weak,
and needs a stimulant, give 4 tablespoonfuls of spirits of niter and a
half glass of whiskey. This may be given in a pint of cold water mixed
with the gruel and given as a drench three or four times a day.

At the same time use the following medicine to improve the kidney
action: One-fourth pound of saltpeter or nitrate of potash and
one-fourth of a pound of gentian root. These are to be mixed well
together and a teaspoonful given three or four times daily. Soft foods
are desirable. A small amount of water should be given frequently. Small
quantities at a time are preferable to large quantities at infrequent
intervals.


=PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.=--This is a very contagious disease of cattle
introduced in this country from Europe. At one time it was a very
serious menace to the cattle industry. Thanks to the very aggressive
work of the United States Department of Agriculture, the disease has, so
far as is known, been eradicated from this country. No cases of the
disease have been reported during the past dozen years.


=PNEUMONIA.=--See Inflammation of the Lungs.


=POLL EVIL.=--A swelling or soreness at the top of the head. Usually it
is caused by an injury, like bumping the head in a doorway, or from a
bruise made by the halter or bridle. It is first noticed by a swelling
or soreness, which frequently causes trouble by forming an abscess;
sometimes this works down and even affects the bone. Treatment is very
simple if handled in time. Remove the cause and then bathe with warm
water and vinegar twice a day and apply a liniment of some kind. If the
abscess is formed, it should be opened with a knife at the lowest point
to remove the matter. From now on for a few days bathe the opening with
warm water in which has been added some carbolic acid or creolin. If the
case causes much trouble, you had better consult a veterinarian, as bad
cases frequently leave the neck stiff so that the animals are not able
to eat off the ground.


=QUARTER CRACK.=--See Sand Crack.


=QUITTOR.=--A name given to a fistulous opening upon the heels and
quarters of the coronary band, and is caused by treads, pricks in
shoeing, bruises, and suppurating corns. Any injury which will cause
suppuration within the foot will usually cause matter to form at the
coronet, and may result in quittor. The disease is indicated by a
swelling upon the coronet where the hair and hoof meet, great lameness,
and a discharge of thin or thick curdy pus. There may be one or a number
of small openings leading down into the sensitive part of the foot. The
parts surrounding the quittor swell and become hard and take on an
unhealthy action and are difficult to cure, and may be permanently
diseased.

[Illustration: QUITTOR

Fistulous wounds on any part of the coronet are usually the result of a
tread or bruise. If neglected serious trouble may result.]

Clean the foot and put it into a bran poultice for several days, then
remove any horn that may be pressing on the sore part. If it is at the
heel remove the crust with a knife; if it is in front of the hoof rasp
it thin. Then probe the opening at the top to find the depth and
direction. Put a grain of bichloride of mercury into tissue paper and
roll it into a cone and press it down to the bottom of the opening.
Treat all the openings in the same way. Put the foot into a bag to
protect it from injury and let it alone for three days, then clean out
the openings and put in some more of the bichloride of mercury, and so
on for two weeks, or until the parts become healthy and the hard
swelling has decreased; then make up a bath of chloride of zinc one
ounce, cool water one gallon; put the foot into this twice a day for
twenty minutes at a time. As soon as the openings are healed blister the
coronet with the following: Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of cantharides with 4
tablespoonfuls of lard; repeat in two weeks if necessary. When it is
time to put on the shoe and work the horse, a bar shoe will be best. If
the animal has much fever in the early stages of the disease give a dose
of aloes, and follow this by giving 2 tablespoonfuls of nitrate of
potassium twice a day in bran mash. Later in the disease give a
teaspoonful of sulphate of iron once a day in bran mash as a tonic.


=RABIES.=--See Hydrophobia.


=RHEUMATISM.=--A disease which affects the muscles or joints, wandering
from one part of the body to another. It affects nearly all animals,
including the horse, ox, dog, hog, and sheep. Rheumatism of the muscles
is usually due to catching cold, while rheumatism of the joints is often
due to some micro-organism.

Stiffness, which usually comes on suddenly, is a characteristic symptom.
The animal may be able to move only with great difficulty. The joints
may crack when moved, the affected muscles are hard and painful to
touch, the soreness may shift from one part to another; and the animal
sometimes makes a quick recovery, only to be followed by another attack
in a short time or perhaps never again. These symptoms may be associated
with a rise in body temperature and increased pulse. The disease may
last for a long time or only for a few days. In chronic cases the
muscles decrease in size in the parts affected. In the dog it is very
painful when caused to move and he will howl, or even howl when he
thinks he is going to be moved. In sheep it seldom occurs except in
young lambs. Pigs are often affected in the legs or back, sometimes
becoming paralyzed in the hind legs.


=Rheumatism of the Joints= usually shows very rapid swelling, increased
heat, and is very painful. The animal is often so lame that it will not
put any weight on the foot of the affected limb.

For horses and cows, treatment consists of local applications of alcohol
50 parts and oil of mustard 1 part, rubbing it in well; or spirits of
camphor. Give at the same time internally 1 teaspoonful of potassium
iodide twice daily and not to exceed 12 doses; or salicylate of soda 4
tablespoonfuls daily. Keep the animal warm and in a well-ventilated
stable. Pigs or dogs, according to size, should be given from 4 to 16
grains of salol, also using the above local applications.


=RINGBONE.=--A growth of bone on the pastern bone, just above the hoof.
It causes lameness when it interferes with the joint or the passage of
any of the tendons. Some horses are predisposed to bony diseases from
the least injury, while others are not, and in selecting mares for
breeding purposes the former should be rejected. This disease results
from strains, bruises, or injuries to the cartilage of the joints. When
the membrane of the bone or cartilage becomes inflamed there may be
great lameness for several months before any enlargement takes place,
and it is somewhat difficult to detect. The absence of other diseases of
the foot, with some heat in the pasterns, and soreness on pressure or
moving the joints indicates this disease. In other cases the enlargement
may make its appearance for some time before the horse becomes lame, and
in some cases it may never cause any lameness, but should always be
looked upon with suspicion, as in the majority of cases it sooner or
later causes lameness. Ringbone is more difficult to cure on the fore
feet than on the hind ones, as the pasterns are more upright on the
former than on the latter, and, besides, the horse’s fore legs have to
bear two-thirds the weight of the body.

The horse should have rest, and the shoes should be removed and the foot
pared level. If there is heat in the part, keep it wet with the
following lotion by means of a bandage saturated with it: Acetate of
lead half an ounce and water one quart. Continue this for a few days,
then apply a blister composed of cantharides 2 teaspoonfuls, biniodide
of mercury 1 teaspoonful and lard 8 tablespoonfuls. Rub on a third of
this with the fingers. It is not necessary to cut off the hair if the
blister is well rubbed in. Let it remain on for 24 hours, then wash off
and rub on a little lard. Repeat every second week until three blisters
have been applied. Keep the horse’s head tied while the blister is on so
that he cannot get his mouth to the part. The horse should have a few
months’ rest after this treatment. If it does not cure the animal it is
best to have him fired by a qualified veterinarian.


=RINGWORM.=--This is common in the domestic animals, especially in
calves and young cattle, and is contagious. It depends upon the presence
of a vegetable parasite, which develops and grows rapidly when it finds
a suitable place for development. Ringworm may affect any part of the
body, but its favorite seat is around the eyes, the face, ears, and
neck of cattle, and sometimes the back and hindquarters.

A gray crust appears on the skin, and the hair drops out. This keeps
spreading in the form of a ring until around the eyes, the side of the
face, ears, or neck may be covered with it. It appears in the same way
on the back, hips, and inside of the hind legs. It does not seem to
affect the health of the animal, as it is found in the well-kept as well
as those poorly kept.

First remove the crusts by washing with warm water in which one ounce of
carbonate of potassium has been put to every quart of water. A brush
should be used in washing the parts. Then use the following: Iodine 2
teaspoonfuls and vaseline 4 tablespoonfuls. Rub a little of this on with
a gloved hand. Repeat in three days. Or mix carbolic acid 1 ounce with 2
ounces of alcohol and apply a little of this to the parts with a feather
once or twice; this last is very effective.


=ROARING.=--A disease, due to the wasting of the larynx; is
characterized by loud, unnatural sounds after any violent exertion. The
disease sometimes follows distemper and influenza or a local injury to
the throat. Once established the disease is incurable. In its early
stages repeated light blisters may help. A common blister can be made of
a half teaspoonful of cantharides, a half teaspoonful of biniodide of
mercury and 4 tablespoonfuls of vaseline or lard.


=ROUP.=--A disease of the mucous membrane in fowls. It is of the nature
of an inflammation, with a discharge from the eyes and nostrils usually
accompanying. Damp and unsanitary quarters favor the development and
spread of roup. It is clearly a germ disease, and, therefore,
contagious. It is spread by means of infected quarters and fowls. All
discharges must be destroyed by disinfection, and the diseased fowls
quarantined off by themselves. The dead should be burned. Keep the
quarters light and airy; admit an abundance of sunshine and fresh air.
Feed wholesome, nutritious food, that the poultry stock may ward off the
disease. The best treatment is that which prevents spreading to healthy
fowls. If an outbreak occurs, disinfect thoroughly, liberally, and
continuously. Antiseptics administered about the head will usually break
up the disease. Creolin is good--say, 1 part to 100 parts of water.
Kerosene is also recommended.

In a sense, roup is the result of neglected colds. The birds sneeze, and
manifest their uneasiness as animals do with common colds. A teaspoonful
of pure carbolic acid to each gallon of drinking water is an excellent
preventive and can be provided at small cost.


=SAND CRACK.=--A crack found in any part of the wall of the foot. The
crack is due to over-exertion. When the hoof is dry and hard and
brittle, the crack usually begins at the top and extends downward.
Frequently the sensitive tissue creeps into the crack, causing pain, and
from which blood frequently issues. When a crack is first seen, the feet
should be poulticed with linseed meal for a few days. This will remove
the inflammation and soften the hoof. The next step will be to pare out
a piece of the hoof at the top, separating it completely from the
coronary band a half inch or so on each side of the crack down to the
quick. Fill this hole with tar. A bar shoe attached so as not to rest on
the wall where the crack is located is very helpful.

[Illustration: A CATTLE BATH TUB

The tank here shown is used for dipping the cattle for treatment of
mange. The dipping tank is now generally used throughout the West.]


=SCAB IN CATTLE.=--Scab or itch, sometimes called mange of cattle, is
caused by a minute mite that lives upon the surface of the skin,
burrowing into it. Other animals are not attacked by this parasite,
although a similar one does afflict sheep. So long as cattle are doing
well on grass, no disturbance is noticed. As soon, however, as they are
placed on dry food and cold weather sets in, the disease appears, and,
if the cattle do poorly, develops into a very aggravating form. Old
cattle are less troubled, the attacks being more frequently on calves
and yearlings and two-year-olds out of condition. In the early stages
the itching of the skin in the region of the neck or shoulders is first
noticed. This is indicated by the animals digging at the skin with
teeth and horns and the constant rubbing against posts or barbed wire or
anything that may give relief at the time. The disease gradually spreads
along the back, sides and outside of legs. In the early stages the coat
looks rough, the skin has a scurvy appearance. In time, the hair comes
off or is rubbed off, presenting bald patches of thick, glazed and
wrinkled skin. After the hair comes off the parasites leave these
regions, seeking other quarters and then the hair grows in again. There
is a dejected and debilitated condition in animals thus afflicted and
they fail rapidly in flesh. Their appetites are poor and most of their
time is expended in scratching themselves.

Scab spreads rapidly through a bunch of cattle, especially if they are
not thrifty, and disseminates itself through a herd in four to six
weeks. The thrifty, vigorous animals resist the infection for some time,
but they gradually succumb. The disease is spread by direct contact and
by contact with infected quarters. While the mites will live a week or
ten days in protected places, they are almost immediately destroyed by
direct sunlight. As soon as the disease is discovered in a bunch of
cattle, the infected animal should be isolated and the infected quarters
and rubbing posts disinfected with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic
acid. Infected animals should be well fed and cared for, and be salted
with a mixture of 1 pound of flowers of sulphur mixed with 10 pounds of
common salt. External treatment is necessary to affect a cure. If a
large number of cattle are affected, a dipping wash through which the
animals must swim in the dip is the best means for destroying the mites.

The most efficient remedies, considering cost, are the coal tar products
advertised as dip solutions. A homemade dip that is both cheap and
effective for treating a small number of animals may be made of 3 pounds
of flowers of sulphur, 2½ pounds of unslaked lime, 15 gallons of water.
In making this unslaked lime into a thick paste, sift in the sulphur and
stir well. Put this mixture in a kettle with, say, five gallons of water
and boil for at least half an hour--a longer time is better. When the
chocolate-looking mass settles, the clear liquid is drawn off and water
enough is added to make 15 gallons. The dip will be more effective if
used when warm, just a bit hotter than the normal heat of the body.
After the animals are dipped, they should remain in the solution about
two minutes. This will be time enough to thoroughly saturate the scabs
and destroy them. A couple of ablutions are required for complete
eradication. When no treatment is resorted to, the dip should be applied
with a scrubbing brush, cloth or sponges and all scabs and crusts should
be thoroughly saturated. Warm sunny days are preferable for this kind of
work.


=SEPTIC NAVEL INFECTION.=--A diseased condition at the attachment of the
navel cord soon after birth. It is a good plan just after birth to apply
some septic powder to the navel at the breaking point. If trouble
arises, apply a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 20 parts of water,
after using some hydrogen peroxide. A little iodoform and alum, mixed
half and half, make a good dusting powder to use also.


=SHEEP BOTS.=--See Bot Flies.


=SIDE BONES.=--On either side of the coffin bone there is a cartilage
which may in certain cases become hardened by deposits of mineral
matters, which may thus lead to lameness. Side bones are situated on
one or both sides of the leg and bulge above the upper portion of the
hoof. They may be the result of inflamed conditions, bruises or troubles
like corns or hoof cracks. Slipping on the stony pavement is a frequent
cause, as well as the great weight of the bodies in heavy horses. If the
wagon tongue falls on the foot at this point, the cartilage may be
injured and induce the disease. The swelling is first noticed just above
the hoof or near the heel. Lameness soon follows.

[Illustration: SIDE BONES

When the cartilages on either side of the foot of a horse just at the
top of the hoof and close to the heel turn to bone, side bones are the
result.]

The treatment usually recommended for side bones consists in the free
use of cold foot baths or cold water bandages for a week or more.
Tincture of iodine applied to the swollen parts is very good. A blister
applied after the water applications have been made for a week or so, is
used by many veterinarians. The blister is made of 2 teaspoonfuls of
cantharides mixed with 4 tablespoonfuls of lard. It is rubbed in well
with the fingers and allowed to remain for 24 hours, when it is washed
off and applied a second time the following week. These applications are
continued until the lameness disappears. If this does not bring
permanent relief, then firing of the injured parts and several months’
rest will be necessary.


=SLOBBERING.=--Some kinds of food cause an unnatural flow of saliva.
Fresh crimson clover hay is one of these. Of course the continual flow
of saliva is undesirable and unpleasant. It is unnatural and should be
checked as soon as possible. This can be accomplished by changing the
feed and then washing the mouth out with alum water. If a change is not
observed soon, give a good physic. For horses use 8 teaspoonfuls of
bitter aloes, a teaspoonful of common soda and a teaspoonful of ginger.
Mix these in a pint of water and give as a drench. For cattle, dissolve
a pound of Epsom salts, a tablespoonful of common soda and a
tablespoonful of ginger in a quart of lukewarm water and give as a
drench.


=SPASMODIC COLIC.=--See Colic.


=SPAVIN.=--This disease, known in common language as bone spavin, is an
enlargement of the hock joint similar to a ringbone about the coronary
joint. It may affect the hock joint in such a way as to cement the small
joints together, not causing lameness, and apparently no blemish, but
the free movement of the limb is impaired. Any condition which favors
sprains, such as fast driving over hard or uneven roads, unequal paring
of the hoof, thus causing the weight to be unequally distributed in the
joints, and severe labor in early life, or blows, bruises, or any
injuries to tendons, ligaments, or joints may cause spavin. In addition
to these causes may be mentioned sprains caused by jumping, galloping,
or trotting animals faster than they are accustomed to; also straining
by starting a heavy load, slipping on an icy surface or sliding on a bad
pavement.

If the patient is examined before any bony growth has developed,
inflammation will be detected on the inside of the hock joint at the
junction of the cannon bone and the joint. While in the stable the horse
prefers to rest the diseased leg by setting the heel on the toe of the
opposite foot with the hock joint flexed. In traveling the patient is
very lame when first taken out of the barn, but after traveling for a
short distance goes sound. The diseased leg is not lifted clear from the
ground, but nicks the toe in the middle of the stride, which is very
noticeable on a pavement. A strained horse becomes very lame after being
allowed to stand for even a very short time, then moved again.

Preventive treatment consists in keeping horses’ feet trimmed properly,
not overworking colts while young, careful driving on hard or uneven
roads, and avoiding all injuries that are liable to strain tendons,
ligaments or joints of the limbs. Even after a spavin has developed it
may be cured by proper treatment of the feet, and applying a fly
blister. The fly blister is prepared by mixing thoroughly 4
tablespoonfuls of pulverized cantharides, 4 tablespoonfuls of biniodide
of mercury and 8 ounces of lard. The hair is clipped over the spavin and
the blister applied with considerable rubbing. The horse’s head should
be tied so as to avoid his biting the part blistered. A second
application of the blister is to be used about a month after the first.
If blistering fails to cure the spavin, point-firing may be resorted to.
It is necessary to “fire” rather deeply to secure good results, care
being taken not to fire into a joint. After firing, a fly blister should
be rubbed into the holes where the hot iron has been used.


=SPAYING.=--The removal of the ovaries to prevent breeding. Cast the
animal on her right side. Give an anesthetic to prevent pain. When the
animal is unconscious, free the limbs sufficiently to remove any
pressure from the abdomen. Now pinch up a fold of the skin in the left
side, midway between the prominent bone of the haunch or pelvis, and the
last rib, about 4 inches below the backbone. Make an incision in the
skin 5 or 6 inches long; now do likewise with the abdominal muscles
until the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity is exposed. This
membrane is then punctured and an incision made as long as that in the
skin and muscles. Now kneel down in close contact with the cow’s back
and insert the arm, passing the hand within the brim or cavity of the
pelvis. By so doing both ovaries can be secured and detached. This
ended, the operation of uniting the abdominal muscles follows by means
of stitches and sutures.

Great care is necessary in having the instruments boiled and washed in
antiseptics, and in having the fingers, hands, and arms severely clean
and well saturated with a strong antiseptic solution. The operation
should be made out in the open where neither dirt nor dust are to be
found. Extreme care about germs will remove much of the risk associated
with the operation.

In spaying a sow, she is laid on an inclined board with the hindquarters
up. The operator stands at the back of the sow. The hair is first
clipped from the skin where the incision is to be made, high up in the
flank and midway between the haunch and the last rib. The incision needs
to be just large enough to admit the two fingers. Ovaries are located,
pulled through the opening in the flank, and removed by tearing off with
the fingers. The flank incision is then closed by the necessary number
of stitches.

This operation is sometimes performed in mares. But being rather
uncommon the process is less understood. In this case it is best to call
your veterinarian or someone in the community well skilled in the
operation. In all cases of spaying let severe cleanliness be the rule
and practice, from the very beginning to the very end.

[Illustration: SPLINT]


=SPLINTS.=--Splints occur more commonly in the heavier breeds of horses
than in those that are light in the bone below the knee. It is rare that
splints occur anywhere except on the inside of the front cannon bone,
although they are sometimes seen on the outside of both the front and
hind legs. Any enlargement of the bone occurring on the inside of the
leg between the knee and fetlock comes under the name of splint. The
usual cause is concussion, that is, the impact of the foot on the hard
road. It may be the result of other causes, such as a blow, a twisting
strain or faulty conformation. Some animals are more liable to splints
than others. It is, after all, to a certain extent, dependent upon
heredity. At first the splint is hard to detect. If you notice a young
horse going lame while doing road work, it is well to examine for
splints. While working there seems to be no lameness at all, and when
standing there seems to be no pain, but when put to a trot the horse
shows lameness and may raise and lower his head.

If taken in time, a splint can be cured. The first thing to do with an
animal suffering from a splint is to give the animal rest and place in
such quarters where there is a soft floor, preferably the ground, and
when so quartered one very frequently effects a complete cure. The
application of cold water bandages acts well. If treatment of this sort
fails, apply a blister of red iodide of mercury, 1 tablespoonful to 2
tablespoonfuls of lard. This blister should be applied with rubbing
every day from two to four days, or until the area is well blistered.
Then wait until the little scabs fall off, and if the animal is still
lame, repeat the application of this blister. To apply the blister, clip
off the hair over the enlargement and wash with vinegar to remove
grease, then rub in blister with ends of fingers. Keep the animals tied
short for two to four days in order to prevent rubbing or biting the
leg. Four days after the last application of blister, wash carefully
with warm water and soap and over it apply every day or so a little
lard, to prevent drying and also to loosen the scabs.


=SPRAINS.=--Injuries to the ligaments of joints, tendons, or muscles.
They are caused by violence, as twisting, or from over-exertion; also
sprains are often the result of overwork. If an animal is worked until
tired or exhausted he is unable to use the proper muscle force, and more
strain has to be borne by the ligaments, resulting in sprains, which
often occur in young horses or even in old horses, when put to work
after long periods of rest. Swelling, heat, soreness, and partial or
complete loss of the use of the part, which is shown by the degree of
lameness, characterize the disorder. Sprains are most common in the
legs, at the fetlock joint, in the tendons just back and above the
fetlocks, but may occur in any part.

The first and most important thing in the treatment of sprains is rest,
as sprains are a long time in making a complete recovery. In the early
stages, that is, before swelling has taken place, applications of cold
water should be used, applications of hot water, or hot packs of water,
1,000 parts, and bichloride of mercury 1 part, are very good. This will
relieve the pain and reduce the swelling. Applications of liniments are
also very good. Should there be great heat and soreness in the part, it
is well to use cold applications. Never blister in the early stages. A
blister may be used after the swelling has gone down, and the part has
become cold, from two to four weeks after the injury occurred. This
should be followed by rest for some time after all lameness has
disappeared.


=STAGGERS.=--Staggers in horses is an affection of the brain showing
itself usually in one of two forms--sleepy or stomach staggers and blind
or mad staggers. In the first form the stomach is at fault. Sudden
change of feed, moldy or dirty food heavy work or fast driving right
after a heavy meal or severe exposure is liable to cause indigestion in
the stomach and this is reflected to the brain, causing the animal to
act dull or sleepy, sometimes showing symptoms of serious colic, with
gas forming from the fermentation of the food, frequently resulting in
death.

Blind or mad staggers is an inflammation of the brain and may affect any
of the lower animals. In the beginning of this form the symptoms closely
resemble those in the stomach form, but as the inflammation progresses
the animal becomes blind and violent and may roll, paw, kick, wander
around in a circle, usually going only one way, either to the left or
right, or it may walk or run in a straight line as near as possible for
hours at a time--paying no attention to injuries received in its
travels. In either case the animal may be drenched once daily with a
quart of raw linseed oil or a pound of Glauber salts, dissolved in
water, which sometimes gives relief.


=Staggers in Sheep= is mostly caused by the young stage of a tapeworm
which infests sheep dogs. The dog eats the infected brain of the sheep
and the sheep eats the egg of the tapeworm after it has passed through
the dog. After the egg hatches in the stomach of the sheep the young
worm passes through the bowels and other organs or tissues or circulates
through the blood and reaches the brain, where it develops and causes an
inflammation, resulting in disease. It is most common in young animals,
rarely occurring in sheep after their second year.

Prevention is about the only practical way of handling this trouble. The
grounds should be thoroughly drained, allowing the animals only pure,
fresh water to drink. It may be necessary to change pastures for a year
or two. The brains of all sheep killed and the heads of all dying with
the disease should be burned.


=STOMACH AND INTESTINAL WORMS IN SHEEP.=--If a box of salt is kept
covered in some place frequented by the sheep, to which they are allowed
to help themselves, and if said salt is saturated with spirits of
turpentine in proportions of a gill to every four quarts of salt, it
will wonderfully help to keep the worms from multiplying. It is well,
also, to have another box of larger size, where sheep can help
themselves at will, filled with tobacco stems. These stems should be cut
up in inch lengths and from time to time a quantity of wheat bran should
be put on top of the stems. When this is done the sheep soon
instinctively learn to use tobacco, and no young intestinal worm or
stomach worm, except the tapeworm, can stand the diet. This will not
kill mature worms. It will only prevent the worm family multiplying to
the extent of injuring the health of sheep.

[Illustration: TWISTED STOMACH WORMS

A common attitude observed when sheep are afflicted with twisted stomach
worms. The animal loses in flesh, and unless relief is found in time,
dies. The parasite is shown in the illustration.]

But no sheep owner should feel wholly satisfied by preventive treatment
of stomach worms. Twice a year the whole flock should be drenched with
some agent which will destroy the mature worms. There are two very
inexpensive drenches which will quite effectually do this. The one is
gasoline, the other coal tar creosote. The objection to gasoline is that
it needs to be so extremely carefully used or sheep will be killed by
it. The dose is 1 tablespoonful (never more at one dose) to a mature
sheep; mix with not less than 4 tablespoonfuls of raw linseed oil (never
boiled oil); then add a half pint of sweet milk. In giving, set the
sheep up on its haunches and shake the liquids well together until the
last minute it is administered, or the gasoline will separate and, if it
enters the stomach in the unmixed form, it will seriously injure and may
kill the sheep.

There is no direct vermifuge that will as effectually kill all species
of worms in a sheep’s stomach and intestines as will gasoline; yet the
coal tar creosote or the more refined class of sheep dips, if given
after a full 12-hour fast, before the flock is turned to pasture in the
spring, and again about November, will destroy a large number of the
mature worms. All lambs born in April or May should be drenched about
August or September following, to be certain of ridding them of worms
that may later cause their death. The dose of any of the sheep dips is a
dessertspoonful mixed in a full pint of water.


=STONE IN BLADDER.=--See Concretions or Calculi of Urinary Organs.


=STRANGLES.=--This trouble, commonly called colt distemper, affects
horses, and rarely mules and donkeys. It is such an infectious disease
that nearly all horses contract the disease when colts and usually
remain immune to future exposures. The cause is a very small organism or
germ which enters the system when a healthy colt comes in contact with
a diseased one or when fed and watered in infected vessels. The seat of
trouble is largely restricted to the respiratory organs, occasionally
causing difficulty in breathing, owing to swelling in region of throat
or to accumulations in air passages.

The symptoms start out with more or less sluggishness. The animal eats
little, and does not care to take much exercise. A little watery
discharge frequently appears from the eyes, and about the same time a
watery discharge from the nostrils, which soon becomes thicker and more
yellow in color. Usually the glands between the lower jawbones become
enlarged and undergo suppuration with a rupture of them and free
discharge of pus. The temperature of the animal may be slightly or very
greatly increased from 103° to 105°. The pulsations may also be
considerably quickened. When complications do not occur this disease
usually runs its course in two weeks, leaving the animal little the
worse for having passed through the affliction.

The milder forms of this disease will need little or no treatment other
than careful feeding and nursing. A laxative diet, with something green,
if possible, should be given. The colt should be placed in clean, airy,
and comfortable quarters, but not in a draft. To hasten the suppuration
of the glands a poultice of hot bran or flaxseed may be applied to that
region, and as soon as softening can be detected within, puncture the
gland containing abscess with a clean knife blade and allow the escape
of the collection of pus. During the course of the disease the animal
should not be worked and care should be taken that it be not exposed to
conditions likely to produce a cold.


=STRINGHALT IN HORSES.=--Stringhalt is an involuntary contraction of the
muscles that bring the hind leg or legs forward. The cause of stringhalt
is a deranged condition of the nerves supplying the muscles, causing the
leg or legs to be brought up with a jerk. In slight cases of stringhalt
it is necessary sometimes to turn the animal round from right to left,
and from left to right, in order to make him show signs of stringhalt,
the symptoms of the disease being exhibited as he turns one way only.
This disease sometimes comes on suddenly, but generally develops slowly.
It is an unsoundness, and depreciates the animal’s value and makes him
unfit for hard work or fast driving. There is no sure cure for
stringhalt; the animal can sometimes be relieved by giving him one ounce
bromide of potassium at a dose twice a day in bran mash, and continuing
it for one week, then skipping a week and giving again. It can sometimes
be relieved by cutting the tendon or tendons of the affected muscles,
but the operation should be performed by a qualified veterinarian.


=SUNSTROKE.=--See Heat Exhaustion and Sunstroke.


=SWAMP FEVER.=--This disease, by some called infectious anemia of
horses, is produced by an invisible organism, which is transmissible to
horses, mules, and asses. About the first symptoms noticed are a general
weakness of the animal; it tires very easily and is not able to do any
work. The loss of flesh is apparent in spite of the voracious appetite
which the animal has at times. The appetite usually remains good until
death, but the feed seems to do the animal no good. The temperature is
very irregular. Some days it runs quite high, at times to 107°; again it
is below normal. An animal may have several attacks of the trouble, but
each succeeding attack seems to be more severe. The blood becomes thin,
and the circulation impaired, and frequently there appears a swelling
under the chest or abdomen, or an enlargement of one or more legs. It is
quite easy to recognize the trouble, especially in the advanced stages.
The slow progress at the beginning, remittent fever, progressive
emaciation and anemia, unimpaired or ravenous appetite, staggering gait,
and excessive urination are usually all present to a greater or less
degree. Recovery takes place only when treatment is begun early and when
the disease is not too acute.

In treating, absolute rest until fully recovered is one of the primary
requisites, and purgatives are to be avoided. For the fever, the United
States Department of Agriculture recommends an antipyretic of quinine 40
grains, acetanilide 2 drams, and powdered nux vomica 30 grains, four
times daily. Cold water sponge baths and frequent copious rectal
injections of cold water also aid in reducing the fever. After the fever
subsides the following is recommended: Arsenious acid, 2 grams; powdered
nux vomica, 28 grams; powdered cinchona bark, 85 grams; powdered gentian
root, 110 grams. These should be well mixed and one-half teaspoonful
given at each feed of the affected animal.

As in the case of all other infectious diseases, the healthy should be
separated from the sick horses, and thorough disinfection of the
infected stable, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be used by
mixing six ounces of any one of these chemicals with one gallon of
water. One of the approved coal-tar sheep dips might also be used to
advantage in a five per cent solution, and should be applied liberally
to all parts of the stable, and sufficient lime may be added to the
solution to make the disinfectant area conspicuous.

From the fact that the disease is more prevalent during wet seasons, it
is always best to guard against allowing the animals to graze upon
swampy land or to drink from ponds of stagnant water. The spread of the
disease has been traced along creeks from one farm to another, which
would suggest avoiding these places also. The draining of the low,
swampy lands is especially recommended.


=SWEENY.=--Wasting of the muscles covering the shoulder blade of the
horse is commonly called “sweeny,” and the cause may be any strain,
sprain, jerk, or bruise of the parts due to a bad fitting collar, or to
awkward steps of a colt plowing for the first time, and especially when
worked in the furrow. The great nerves of the shoulder are affected, and
in consequence nutrition is impaired and the muscles waste away. A
similar condition may affect the muscles of the hip, or of the space
between the stifle and hip.

Lameness seldom is a prominent feature in shoulder sweeny. Ordinarily
the wasting comes on some time after the causative injury; then the skin
alone appears to cover the bone (scapula) and the animal may have little
power for work. In this connection it should be remembered that wasting
of the shoulder muscles also may be due to any chronic lameness or
soreness of the foot, or leg, between foot and shoulder. Wasting
(atrophy) of muscles occurs when the muscles for any reason are not
fully exercised. It, therefore, is important to make sure whether the
cause is in the foot or in the shoulder before commencing treatment.

Treatment consists in stimulating flow of blood to the poorly nourished
parts, and if this can be done the muscles gradually grow in again and
regain their normal development and power. An old-fashioned plan is to
make incisions in the skin and then blow up the parts with air to
separate the skin from the bone. This should not be done. Setons
(rowels) of tape may be inserted under the skin, but they leave scars.
Better treatment consists in rubbing the parts twice daily with a
stimulating liniment, or blistering at intervals of three weeks with
cerate of cantharides, after removing the hair. A suitable liniment may
be made by mixing together four ounces of druggist’s soap liniment, one
ounce each of aqua ammonia and water to make one pint.


=SWINE PLAGUE.=--See Hog Cholera.


=TAPE WORMS.=--The flat worms of domestic animals. They are most serious
and common in sheep. Treatment is only partially satisfactory. To get
any reasonable result food must be withheld for several hours before the
medicine is given. Use the following: 1 teaspoonful of ethereal extract
of male fern in four ounces of castor oil. It is desirable to keep the
sheep inclosed, so that the ground can be disinfected after the worms
are expelled, otherwise infection will occur right over again.


=TETANUS.=--See Lockjaw.

[Illustration: TEXAS FEVER

The annual loss to the South, because of the cattle tick, extends into
many millions of dollars. Investigations show that a complete
extermination can be effected at a cost of $6 per farm.]


=TEXAS OR TICK FEVER.=--The earliest accounts that we have of this
disease date back to 1814. It was found that cattle driven from a
certain district in South Carolina to other parts of the state would
infect others with the disease, while they themselves seemed to be in
perfect health. The disease is known by various names in the different
sections of the country. It is often called red water, Spanish fever,
Australian tick fever, and murain.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL CASE OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

The disease shows itself about the mouth, the feet and the teats. When
an outbreak occurs all affected animals should be destroyed and all
quarters thoroughly disinfected.]

This is a specific fever, and is characterized by the peculiarity among
animal diseases that animals which scatter the infection are apparently
in good health, while those which sicken and die from it do not, as a
rule, infect others.

When the cattle are brought into the infected districts they usually
contract the disease during the first of the summer, and if they are
adult cattle, particularly milch cows or fat cattle, nearly all die;
calves are more likely to survive. The disease is one from which
immunity is acquired, and, therefore, calves which recover from the
disease are not again attacked, as a rule, even after they become adult.

When the disease is prevalent or scattered beyond the infected district
the roads, barns and pastures are dangerous until freezing weather, when
the disease disappears and cattle can be kept in the grounds or driven
over the roads without catching the disease. The midwinter months is the
only time that cattle can be safely driven from an infected area to a
non-infected area without spreading the disease.


=The Cause.=--Texas fever is caused by an organism which lives within
the red-blood corpuscles and breaks them up. It is not a bacteria, but a
protozoa, and belongs to the lowest forms of the animal kingdom. How it
gets into the blood corpuscles is not known. The fatality is due not so
much to the loss of blood corpuscles as to the difficulty which the
organs have in getting rid of the waste products arising from this
wholesale destruction.


=The Course of the Disease.=--After a period of exposure, which may vary
from 13 to 90 days, the disease first shows itself in dullness, loss of
appetite and a tendency to leave the herd and lie down alone. A few days
before these symptoms appear the temperature rises from 103° to 107°.
There is little change in temperature until death or recovery.


=Pathological Changes Observable After Death.=--The presence of small
ticks on the udder or escutcheon is a very important sign in herds north
of the Texas fever line. The watery condition of the blood. The spleen
or milt very much enlarged, and filled with a blackish pulp. Enlargement
of the liver, and its color changed to a mahogany color. The distended
gall-bladder, caused by an excessive amount of bile in it.


=The Cattle Tick= (_Boophilus bovis_) is the carrier of this disease.
Its life history is quite simple. It is unable to come to maturity and
reproduce its kind unless it becomes attached to the skin of cattle,
whence it may obtain its food. The eggs laid on the ground by the female
tick after falling off the cattle begin to develop at once. The time
required for hatching varies considerably, according to the temperature.
In the heat of summer about 13 days, and in the fall, under the same
conditions, from four to six weeks. On pastures these little creatures
soon find their way on to cattle. They attach themselves, by preference,
to the tender skin on the escutcheon, the inside of the thighs, and on
the base of the udder. When very numerous they may be found on various
parts of the body. They remain clinging to the cattle until mature, and
then fall off and lay their eggs and hatch more new ticks.


=How Prevention Is Possible.=--The spread of Texas fever can be
prevented by two ways--sanitary arrangements and by vaccination. Where
the cattle are infected with the tick, the ticks can be killed by
smearing the animals with a solution capable of killing the ticks
without harming the cattle. In large herds a large vat of crude
petroleum is used to immerse the cattle in. In small herds smear the
cattle with a mixture of equal parts of cottonseed oil and crude
petroleum.

How to rid the pastures of the tick without killing the vegetation on
them has for a long time been the problem. Divide the pasture in two
parts by a double parallel line of fence with a 10-foot space between,
to prevent ticks from crawling across. One of these pastures is then
kept free of cattle for two winters and one summer. After the second
winter it will be free of ticks and ready for tickless cattle, when the
other pasture is abandoned for the same time.

Vaccination is for the purpose of immunizing cattle that are brought
from a non-infected district to an infected district. Calves about six
to eight months old should be used, as they are more immune than adult
cattle. The immunity is caused by introducing the germ into the blood in
a weakened form. This may be done in two ways--by placing virulent young
ticks on the calves or by artificial vaccination. When this is
practiced, it should be done in two or three inoculations, as it gives
better results. The intervals should be about three weeks. The amount of
virulent blood should be small the first time and increased in the
following treatments.

The inoculation always results in a more or less serious attack of the
fever upon the animal treated. Some may die, but the proportion of
deaths resulting among animals taken directly into the infected
district is large to the proportion of deaths resulting from
vaccination. Medical treatment for this disease has proven
unsatisfactory in the acute form, although in some chronic cases some
good results may have been obtained by medical treatment.


=THICK LEG.=--See Lymphangitis.


=THOROUGHPIN.=--An enlargement situated on the sides and upper part of
the hock joint of the horse, arising from a derangement of the sheath of
the back tendon. The fluid with which it is filled can be pressed from
one side to the other, hence the term thoroughpin. It seldom causes
lameness. For treatment mix a teaspoonful of biniodide of mercury with 4
tablespoonfuls of lard. Rub on a little with the fingers, let it remain
on for 24 hours, then wash off and rub on a little lard or vaseline.
Repeat the blister every third week until the enlargement disappears.
The horse should have rest while under treatment.


=THRUSH.=--A diseased condition of the secreting surface of the fatty
frog in the foot. In severe cases the horny part often detaches from the
sensitive tissue within. Bad shoeing is a common cause of the trouble,
or anything else that prevents the frog from coming in contact with the
ground. Lameness is sometimes associated with the disease. Treatment
consists of careful cleaning, followed with linseed meal poultices if
lame. After the foot is made dry, insert calomel into the little
cavities. The calomel can be kept in and the dirt kept out by using
paper or cloth plugs. Follow this treatment until normal condition is
attained.


=THUMPS.=--This disease is limited in its action to pigs. Its cause is
not definitely known. It is recognized by a peculiar contraction of the
diaphragm in young pigs. While the pig may eat fairly well the
disturbance is associated with digestion. Such patients like to lie
around and take very little exercise. The disease is more common where
one kind of food like corn is fed. The old common method was to cut off
the ear. The common practice now is to give a purgative so as to relieve
the stomach and bowels of accumulated material. The food should be
changed and from 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of Epsom salts should be given.
The jerking movement of the muscles may be relieved or stopped by using
laudanum, say, four drops to 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of aromatic spirits of
ammonia in a half pint of water.


=TICK FEVER.=--See Texas Fever.


=TRICHINOSIS.=--A disease caused by the trichina, a minute worm that
affects people, hogs and rats. People become affected with the disease
from raw or partly cooked pork. These worms are killed by thorough
cooking or by the process of hot pickling and curing meat products.

Hogs become affected through eating offal and rats about the
slaughterhouses. Hogs that are fed on green grass and other wholesome
food, free from these minute worms, are less likely to have trichinæ
embedded in their flesh and muscles. Hogs do not seem to be bothered
with the trichinæ, but people suffer very severely, as both soreness in
the muscles and fever result.

A few days after eating the trichinæ, the worms multiply very rapidly in
the digestive tract, from which they migrate to other parts of the body
and work their way through the tissues. There is no remedy in way of
treatment when affected. Prevention is the one cure. Inasmuch as five to
ten per cent of hogs are affected, it is advisable that all pork or ham
be eaten only after most thorough cooking.


=TUBERCULOSIS.=--Tuberculosis is a disease resulting from the growth of
tubercle bacteria in the tissues of the animal. The bacteria, or germs,
of tuberculosis, usually gain entrance to the organs of the body by
being taken in with the food. Sometimes they penetrate through the
membranes in the throat and get into the glands of the head. Sometimes
they are taken into the digestive tract, where they pass through the
walls of the intestines into the lymph channels and are carried through
the large lymph vessel into the blood circulation. In some cases it
would seem that the bacteria get into the lungs on particles of dust
that are inhaled.

[Illustration: TUBERCULOSIS GERMS

These germs may be inhaled in the lungs with the air, admitted to the
stomach and intestines with food and drink, or established in the flesh
by inoculation through broken skin or mucous membrane.]

After getting into the body, tubercle bacteria multiply in the tissues
to which they have been carried and produce the changes in them which we
find on the examination of an animal suffering with tuberculosis.
Tuberculosis, therefore, is simply the outcome of the growth of the
tubercle bacteria in the organs.


=Where Tubercles Are to Be Found.=--Tuberculous areas may be found in
almost any part of the infected animal, but the organs that are usually
affected are the lymphatic glands, either in the throat, the bronchial
glands or those about the intestines and on the liver; the lungs; the
liver; the kidneys; intestines; udder and generative organs. The
membrane covering the lungs (pleura), the heart (pericardium), and
intestines (peritoneum), are frequently affected. It often happens that
a large mass, or masses, of tuberculous tissue grow over one or more of
these membranes. The most peculiar thing about bovine tuberculosis is
the fact that frequently an animal will appear to be perfectly well, but
when slaughtered will be found to have a large number of tuberculous
areas or masses on the membranes or in its organs. The reason for this
is that the diseased area is not at a vital point.

The organ or membrane affected depends upon the one to which the germ is
carried. Usually animals are infected in but one organ in the beginning,
and from this diseased area the germs spread through the blood vessels
or lymph channels to other organs. When the diseased area is restricted
to one organ or part, it is called “localized” tuberculosis, because it
appears at the point where the seed or germ was first planted. When the
germs spread through the circulation from this first or primary diseased
area to other organs and set up new tuberculous growths, the condition
is called “generalized” tuberculosis. When cattle are slaughtered for
food, if they are found to be afflicted with localized tuberculosis, the
flesh is considered to be fit for food, but if the disease is
generalized the carcass is condemned.


=The Symptoms of Tuberculosis= vary according to the location of the
disease. If it is in the glands of the throat it is suggested by their
enlargement. If it is in a gland about the lungs, which, because of its
enlargement, presses on the œsophagus (gullet), there might be bloating.
If the disease is in the lung tissue there would be, after it is
sufficiently advanced, coughing and perhaps difficult breathing. If the
disease is in the liver, it cannot be readily distinguished until it is
far advanced. If the disease is in the udder it manifests itself usually
by the organ becoming firm or hard, and when the tissues are
sufficiently broken down the milk from that quarter will be changed in
appearance; sometimes it is thick, containing pus, sometimes thin and
watery. It is very difficult to diagnose tuberculosis from the symptoms,
as many other causes may give rise to similar manifestations.

As tuberculosis is caused by a specific germ, the disease is spread by
the germs escaping from the diseased animals and getting into the bodies
of healthy ones. The tubercle bacteria escape from the infected animal
with some one or more of the natural discharges of the body. For
example, if the cow has a bad tuberculous area in the lung, the bacteria
may be discharged into one of the air tubes and coughed up into the
mouth. Some of them will escape with the saliva and infect mangers or
pastures. Some of them may be swallowed and escape from the body with
the feces. If the disease is in the udder the germs will escape with the
milk. There are some observations which indicate that sometimes the
bacteria will escape with the milk where the udder is not affected.
After the bacteria leave the diseased animal and are left in the manger,
or in the pasture, or on the surface of water in the drinking trough,
they can be readily taken up by healthy cattle that eat or drink after
them. If they escape with the milk, calves and pigs that are fed with it
readily become infected. After the germs get into the body of the
healthy animal they will multiply and produce the disease, just as the
seed of a noxious weed will, if blown into a new field, germinate and
produce the weed there. Tuberculosis spreads from animal to animal on
the same principle that weeds spread from one field to another.

In order to prevent the spread of tuberculosis it is simply necessary to
prevent healthy animals from coming in contact with the diseased ones or
eating or drinking after them.

As tuberculosis cannot be readily detected by a physical examination
until the disease is far advanced in the organs affected, it is
necessary, in order to determine which animals have the disease, to
apply some test or to find the germs of the disease in their excretions.
The simplest test that has thus far been discovered is the action of
tuberculin. When tuberculin is injected under the skin of the animals
affected with active tuberculosis the animals respond by a rise of
temperature, which follows a somewhat definite curve. By means of this
test it is possible to pick out the infected individuals so that they
can be separated from the healthy ones. The test should be repeated in
from six months to a year in order to detect any new cases which might
have developed from latent or arrested ones. We cannot always get all of
the infected animals with the first test any more than we can always
remove every weed from the garden by one hoeing.


=The Bang Method for the Control= of tuberculosis consists in separating
the animals that are infected from the well ones and keeping them for
breeding purposes. The calves are removed from their dams as soon as
born and fed with the milk of healthy cows, or the pasteurized milk of
the infected ones. It has been found that but a small percentage of
calves that are raised under proper precautions from such animals have
tuberculosis. By this means a sound herd of cattle may be developed from
tuberculous animals. This method was introduced by Prof. Bang of
Copenhagen, and it has been found to be very effective in Denmark and
other countries in Europe. It has been applied with much success in a
large number of individual herds in the United States. Its success
depends entirely upon the care which is taken in keeping tubercle
bacteria away from the calves.

In purchasing cattle for dairy or breeding purposes it is important that
they should be taken from herds that are free from tuberculosis. The
sound herd is the unit to be dealt with. Animals from such herds are far
more reliable than non-reactors from tuberculous herds.


=TUMORS.=--Abnormal growths of tissues. There are many kinds of tumors.
They are named from the kind of tissue of which they are composed, as
fibrous and fatty. Just why tumors should develop is not known.
Treatment is in the direction of direct removal; this means they are to
be cut out with a knife. Another method is to tie a strong cord around
the stem of the tumor, thus shutting off the blood supply. As soon as
this is effected, there will be a sloughing away, with a sore remaining,
which is to be treated as in an ordinary wound. Some tumors are burnt
off with caustics. Arsenic or corrosive sublimate are commonly used,
either singularly or combined. Better consult a veterinarian about the
removal of tumors on valuable animals.


=TUMORS IN PIGS AFTER CASTRATION.=--Bunches form on the cords of pigs
after castration as a result of infection from dirty instruments or
hands during the operation; or from leaving the cord too long, thus
increasing the liability of its becoming infected. These tumors continue
to grow, and in the worst cases attain the size of a man’s head. Cut
down on a tumor the same as in a simple case of castration. Separate the
skin from the tumor and then swallow up the cord with the hands. Cut the
cord off as high up as possible. The wound may be healed by the use of
any of the common disinfectants. A teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a
quart of water may be used once daily until the pigs are healed. Pigs
should be kept in a clean pen after the operation.


=WARBLES.=--These are lumps in the skin of cattle, caused by grubs or
warbles. A simple treatment is to cut the skin and squeeze out the grubs
where the lumps are noticed. If all the grubs are killed in this way,
there will be no mature flies to cause trouble later on. See article on
Bot Flies.


=WARTS.=--The cause of these little tumors of the skin is not definitely
known. They occur on all domestic animals, appearing most frequently on
horses and cattle. Pure acetic acid, dropped on the wart until it is
saturated and softened, destroys in the early stages. Warts about which
a small cord may be tied are most easily treated in that way. After they
have sloughed off, apply a little terchloride of antimony with a feather
or cotton. When the scab forms, remove it and apply the chemical again.
With a couple of applications the spot will be lower than the
surrounding skin. Now use an ointment, made of 4 tablespoonfuls of oxide
of zinc and 8 tablespoonfuls of lard. Apply this daily until the sore
spot is healed. Sometimes a form of warts suddenly appears on colts and
calves and scatter themselves about the lips, nose and face. They are
common and appear and disappear suddenly. No treatment is necessary.


=WATER IN THE BRAIN.=--Dropsy in the brain. A condition characterized by
an accumulation of fluid in the brain. The disease is either congenital
or arises during the first years of life. When it occurs the best thing
is to kill the young individual at once.


=WATER IN THE CHEST.=--Often after a case of pleurisy a reaction comes
and a very large quantity of water settles in the chest cavity, anywhere
from two to four pailfuls. When the disease comes on the animal has
difficulty in breathing; takes in the breath quickly. There is a
constant biting at the flanks; the pulse increases to a hundred beats a
minute. If you place your ear over the chest you will likely hear no
sound at all. Best treatment is wholesome food, boiled flaxseed, and
blisters for both sides of the chest. Use strong mustard plasters. A
good medicine to use is one-fourth of a pound of saltpeter or nitrate of
potash, one fourth of a pound of ground gentian and one-fourth of a
pound of sulphate of iron. These should be mixed and then 1 teaspoonful
given every four hours. You had better consult a veterinarian. Other
complications set in so readily that help may be secured in other ways.
Some veterinarians puncture the chest so as to draw off the surplus
water that has accumulated.


=WHITE SCOURS OF CALVES.=--Calves of several days or weeks old suffer
from indigestion, which is indicated by thriftlessness, and then
scouring. The discharges are white, sour, curdled and frequent at first
and then become watery, greenish and offensive, passing in stream often.
Calves live some days and fast lose flesh, showing all the symptoms of
ill health.

One of the commonest causes is feeding dirty, souring or decomposing
factory skim milk in large quantities at long intervals; even sweet skim
milk so fed may produce the trouble. To prevent scours give calves a
perfectly clean, airy, sunny pen and yard attached. Separate any calf
that scours. Avoid dirty, dark, damp, poorly ventilated pens in which
scouring calves have been. Give all food from clean, scalded, sun-dried
vessels. Feed small quantities of food often; and in milk mix lime water
freely two or three times a week as a preventive; and daily when
scouring has been experienced. Also see that the udders of cows nursing
calves do not become contaminated with manure or other filth.

Wash udders with a two per cent solution of coal tar disinfectant before
any calf is allowed to suck for the first time, and then repeat to keep
the udders clean. Also disinfect the navel of each calf at birth with a
1/500 solution of corrosive sublimate and repeat the application twice a
day until the navel is perfectly healed over. At the first sign of
scours give castor oil shaken up in milk. Two to 6 tablespoonfuls is the
dose according to the size and age of the calf. Follow two or three
times daily with a 1 to 2-teaspoonful dose of a mixture of one part of
salol and two parts of subnitrate of bismuth in milk or water. For
calves scouring on skim milk mix in each pint of milk 1 teaspoonful of a
mixture of half an ounce of formaldehyde in 15½ ounces of distilled
water, to be kept in an amber-colored bottle.


=WIND COLIC.=--See Colic.


=WIND PUFFS.=--An accumulation of synovia in the cavities between the
tendons of the legs, especially between the back tendons and the bone
just above the fetlock joint. The bulging out is on each side of the
tendon. Horses subjected to severe exertions, like hard work on the
roads, are most frequently affected. The puffs or galls seldom cause
lameness or interfere with the usual work. Unless treated the puffs will
become thicker and harder and sometimes solidified. When this happens
lameness occurs. In the early stages, pads and bandages, if applied so
as to cause pressure, will tend to remove the galls. If this treatment
is not sufficient, then use a teaspoonful of biniodide of mercury, and 4
tablespoonfuls of lard. When mixed, these should be rubbed on with the
fingers. After 24 hours remove with water and soap and repeat every
other week until the puffs disappear.


=WIND SUCKING.=--See Cribbing.


=WORMS.=--See Intestinal Worms in Horses and Sheep; and Stomach Worms.


=WORMS IN HOGS.=--Hogs with worms in the intestines run down in
condition, become very thin and lank, back is arched, eyes dull, refuse
feed, walk stiffly, and appear lifeless. The worms may be very numerous,
in bad cases completely filling the intestines. The pigs die if not
treated. To secure the best results, affected hogs should receive
individual treatment. Twenty-four hours before administering treatment
very little feed should be given them. Then give the following medicine
as a drench to each 100-pound hog; larger or smaller hogs should receive
a dose in proportion: 4 tablespoonfuls of oil of turpentine, one-half
teaspoonful of liquor ferri dialysatus and 6 ounces of raw linseed oil.
If necessary, repeat the dose in four days.




Index


                                           Page
  Abortion,                                 101
  Abscesses,                                103
  Aconite,                                   69
  Actinomycosis,                            104
  Afterbirth,                               106
  Aloes,                                     69
  Alum,                                      69
  Animal Body a Collection of Cells,         11
  Animal Body, How Formed,                    9
  Animals, Caring for Sick,                  99
  Animal Diseases, Learn to Recognize,        4
  Animals, Examining in the Stables,         42
  Animals, Out of Doors Test,                44
  Anthrax,                                  108
  Antimony,                                  71
  Apoplexy,                                 111
  Anemia,                                   107
  Aniseed,                                   70
  Arnica,                                    70
  Arsenic,                                   70
  Azoturia,                                 111

  Back,                                      47
  Bandage, How to Make It,                   57
  Barrenness,                               113
  Belladonna,                                70
  Big Head,                                 113
  Big Jaw of Cattle,                        114
  Big Knee,                                 114
  Big Leg,                                  114
  Bile,                                      26
  Biniodide of Mercury,                      71
  Bitter Milk,                              114
  Blackhead,                                114
  Blackleg,                                 115
  Blackleg Vaccine,                         116
  Bladder,                                   67
  Bladder, Stone in,                        117
  Blind Staggers,                           117
  Blistering,                                98
  Bloating in Cattle,                       117
  Blood,                                     12
  Blood Poisoning,                          120
  Bloody Milk,                              121
  Bloody Urine,                             121
  Body,                                      47
  Body Tissues,                              12
  Bog Spavin,                               122
  Bone Spavin,                              123
  Bot Flies,                                123
  Bots,                                     126
  Breeze Flies,                             123
  Broken Wind,                              126
  Bromide of Potassium,                      71
  Bronchitis,                               126
  Bruises, Treating,                         60
  Bunches,                                  128
  Burns,                                    128

  Caked Bag,                                128
  Caked Udder,                              128
  Calculi of Urinary Organs,                140
  Calf Cholera,                             128
  Calf Scours,                              129
  Camphor,                                   72
  Cancer,                                   129
  Cantharides,                               72
  Capped Elbow,                             130
  Capped Hock,                              130
  Capped Knee,                              131
  Carbolic Acid,                             72
  Castration,                               131
  Catarrh,                                  133
  Cattle Scab,                              134
  Cattle, Special Type in,                   44
  Caustic Potash,                            74
  Cell Division,                             10
  Cell, Nature of,                            9
  Cells, What They Are,                      11
  Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis,                134
  Charbon,                                  135
  Chest Founder,                            135
  Chicken Cholera,                          135
  Choking,                                  136
  Chronic Founder,                          165
  Circulation of Blood,                      28
  Coffin Joint Lameness,                    137
  Colds,                                    137
  Colic,                                    137
  Colic Mixture,                             80
  Concretions,                              140
  Constipation,                             142
  Corns,                                    142
  Corns, Examine for,                        49
  Cornstalk Disease,                        143
  Corrosive Sublimate,                       73
  Cough Mixture,                             80
  Cow Pox,                                  144
  Cracked Hoofs,                            144
  Cramp Colic,                              145
  Creolin,                                   74
  Cribbing,                                 144
  Crib Suckers,                             145
  Croton Oil,                                73
  Curb,                                     145

  Diabetes,                                 146
  Diarrhoea,                                147
  Difficult Parturition,                    147
  Digestion of Food,                         23
  Dipping Live Stock,                       147
  Disease, Diagnosis and Treatment,          92
  Disease on the Farm,                        1
  Disease, Physical Examination in,          92
  Disease due to Heredity,                   84
  Disease from Chemical Causes,              84
  Disease, Origin of,                        86
  Disease, The Causes of,                    83
  Disease, The Meaning of,                   82
  Disease, The Course of,                    87
  Disease, The Termination of,               89
  Disease, The Treatment of,                 95
  Diseases of Farm Animals,                 101
  Dishorning,                               148
  Disinfect Frequently,                       5
  Disinfectants,                              6
  Distemper,                                148
  Dropsy,                                   148
  Dysentery,                                150
  Dystokia,                                 149

  Eczema,                                   149
  Enteritis,                                151
  Epilepsy,                                 151
  Epizootic,                                151
  Ergotism,                                 151
  Erysipelas,                               152
  Examining Animals,                         39

  Farcy,                                    153
  Feet,                                      17
  Fever,                                    153
  Firing,                                    98
  Fistulæ,                                  154
  Fits,                                     157
  Flatulent Colic,                          157
  Fleas,                                    157
  Flies,                                    157
  Flukes, Liver,                            158
  Fly Blister,                               80
  Foot and Mouth Disease,                   158
  Foot Puncture,                            160
  Foot Rot in Sheep,                        160
  Fore Legs,                                 48
  Founder,                                  162
  Fowl Cholera,                             165
  Framework of the Body,                     13
  Front Feet,                                48

  Gapes,                                    165
  Garget,                                   166
  Gastric Juice,                             25
  Gastritis,                                166
  Gentian,                                   75
  Germs,                                     85
  Gid in Sheep,                             166
  Ginger,                                    75
  Glanders,                                 167
  Gravel or Dirt in Foot,                   174
  Grease Heel,                              175
  Grub in the Head,                         176

  Hair,                                      13
  Hair Balls,                               177
  Heart, How it Works,                       31
  Heat Exhaustion,                          178
  Heaves,                                   177
  Hernia,                                   179
  Hide-Bound,                               181
  High Blowing,                             181
  Hind Feet,                                 49
  Hind Legs,                                 49
  Hip Joint Lameness,                       181
  Hipped,                                   182
  Hog Cholera,                              182
  Hollow Horn,                              193
  Hoof Cracks,                              194
  Hoof Ointment,                             80
  Horn Fly,                                 194
  Horses, Special Type in,                   40
  Hoven,                                    194
  Hydrocephalus,                            194
  Hydrophobia,                              194
  Hydrothorax,                              195
  Hyposulphite of Soda,                      75

  Impaction of Rumen,                       195
  Indigestion,                              196
  Infectious Anemia in Horses,              197
  Infectious Pneumonia,                     197
  Inflammation of the Bowels,               197
  Inflammation of the Lungs,                199
  Influenza,                                200
  Inoculation,                               86
  Internal Organs,                           65
  Intestinal Worms in Horses,               201
  Intestinal Worms in Sheep,                251
  Intestines,                                66
  Iodide of Potassium,                       76
  Iodine,                                    76
  Itch,                                     202

  Jaundice,                                 202

  Kidneys,                                   67
  Kidney Worms,                             204
  Knee Sprung,                              205

  Lameness, Examine for,                     50
  Laminitis,                                205
  Laudanum,                                  76
  Leg Bones,                                 17
  Leg Wounds,                                61
  Lice,                                     205
  Linseed Oil,                               76
  Liver Flukes,                             207
  Lockjaw,                                  208
  Loco Disease,                             212
  Lumpy Jaw,                                213
  Lung Fever,                               214
  Lungs,                                     67
  Lungs, Congestion of,                     213
  Lung Worms in Calves,                     214
  Lung Worms in Lambs,                      214
  Lymph,                                     12
  Lymphangitis,                             214
  Lymph Through Cells,                       29

  Mad Dog,                                  217
  Maggots,                                  217
  Maggots in Wounds,                         61
  Mange,                                    219
  Mastication,                               24
  Medicines,                                 69
  Medicines, Administration of,              97
  Medicines, Giving in a Ball,               97
  Medicines, Giving in a Drench,             97
  Mallenders,                               218
  Mammitis,                                 218
  Milk Fever,                               219
  Monday Morning Sickness,                  221
  Mouth, Examining the,                      46
  Muscular System,                           19
  Mustard Plasters,                          98

  Nasal Gleet,                              221
  Navicular Disease,                        222
  Neck,                                      47
  Nervous System,                            19
  Nitrate of Potash,                         77
  Nitrate of Soda,                           77
  Nits,                                     224
  Nodular Disease in Sheep,                 224
  Nostril,                                   45
  Nutriment, How Absorbed,                   27
  Nux Vomica,                                77

  Obstetrics,                               225

  Paces, Testing of,                         52
  Palisade Worm,                            228
  Paralysis,                                229
  Parasites,                                230
  Parturient Apoplexy,                      230
  Parturition, Difficult,                   230
  Pelvic Girdle,                             15
  Peritonitis,                              230
  Physic Drench for Cattle,                  81
  Physic Drench for Horses,                  81
  Physiology You Ought to Know,              21
  Pink Eye,                                 231
  Placenta,                                 232
  Plant Building,                            21
  Pleurisy,                                 233
  Pleuro-Pneumonia,                         234
  Pneumonia,                                234
  Poll Evil,                                234
  Post-Mortem Examination,                   62
  Post-Mortem, First Things to Do,           63
  Post-Mortem, Removing the Skin,            65
  Post-Mortem, The Discharges,               64
  Poultices,                                 98
  Prescriptions,                             80
  Prevention Better than Cure,                4
  Profuse Staling,                          146
  Protoplasm,                                 9
  Pulse, Taking the,                         93
  Punctures, Nail,                           59

  Quarantine Quarters,                        8
  Quarter Crack,                            235
  Quittor,                                  235

  Rabies,                                   236
  Reproductive Apparatus,                    20
  Respiration,                               32
  Respiration, Taking the,                   95
  Respiratory Organs,                        20
  Rheumatism,                               236
  Ringbone,                                 237
  Ringworm,                                 238
  Roaring,                                  239
  Roup,                                     239

  Salts,                                     79
  Sand Crack,                               240
  Scab in Cattle,                           241
  Septic Navel Infection,                   243
  Sheep Bots,                               243
  Sick Animals,                               7
  Side Bones,                               243
  Skeleton,                                  14
  Skin,                                      13
  Skull,                                     15
  Slobbering,                               245
  Soothing Ointment,                         80
  Soundness, Examining Animals for,          39
  Spasmodic Colic,                          245
  Spavin,                                   245
  Spaying,                                  247
  Spirits of Niter,                          78
  Splints,                                  248
  Sprains,                                  249
  Staggers,                                 250
  Stomach,                                   66
  Stomach Churn,                             26
  Stomach of Horse,                          24
  Stomach of Ruminants,                      25
  Stomach Worms in Sheep,                   251
  Stone in Bladder,                         253
  Strangles,                                253
  Stringhalt in Horses,                     255
  Sugar of Lead,                             78
  Sulphate of Copper,                        78
  Sulphate of Iron,                          78
  Sulphur,                                   79
  Sunstroke,                                255
  Swamp Fever,                              255
  Sweeny,                                   257
  Swine Plague,                             258

  Tape Worms,                               258
  Teeth, As an Indication of Age,            34
  Teeth, Loosening of Temporary,             35
  Teeth of Cattle,                           37
  Teeth of Sheep,                            38
  Temperature, Taking the,                   94
  Tetanus,                                  258
  Texas Fever,                              258
  Thick Leg,                                262
  Thoroughpin,                              262
  Throat,                                    47
  Thrush,                                   262
  Thumps,                                   262
  Tick Fever,                               263
  Tissues, Body,                             12
  Tooth, The Mark in,                        35
  Trichinosis,                              263
  Tuberculosis,                             264
  Tumors,                                   268
  Tumors in Pigs After Castration,          268
  Turpentine,                                79

  Urinary Organs,                            20

  Warbles,                                  269
  Warts,                                    269
  Water in the Brain,                       270
  Water in the Chest,                       270
  White Scours of Calves,                   270
  Wind Puffs,                               271
  Wind Sucking,                             272
  Wind, Testing the,                         51
  Worms,                                    272
  Worms in Hogs,                            272
  Wound, Cleansing the,                      56
  Wounds,                                    54
  Wounds, First Step in Treating,            56
  Wounds, Kinds of,                          55
  Wounds, Special Treatment of,              58




  Transcriber’s Notes


  Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been retained.
  The Plates have been added to the List of Illustrations.
  Jekyl-like (page 11) and post portem (page 120) have not been
  corrected.
  Page 110 ff.: not all entries are listed in alphabetical order, this
  has not been corrected.

  Changes and corrections made:

  Page 21: Æsophagus changed to Œsophagus
  Page 183: ... characteristic “a” or even “b” ...: Letter “b” was
  invisible in the source document
  Page 186: On open- the carcass ... changed to On opening the carcass
  ...
  Page 201: Intestinal Worms in Horses: capitalised as other section
  headings
  Page 275: Nail Punctures changed to Punctures, Nail.







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