GUIDE TO THE STUDY
OF
ANIMAL ECOLOGY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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BY
CHARLES C. ADAMS, Ph.D.
ASSOCIATE IN ANIMAL ECOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF ZOÖLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

NEW YORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1913

All rights reserved

Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1913.

Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

During the past ten years the writer has been trying to find some consistent and satisfactory working plan for handling the almost bewildering number of facts, of ecological significance, which have been accumulating in the literature of zoölogy, biology, and the allied sciences. This book is the outgrowth of the effort as it has developed in the study and teaching of animal ecology. I have not attempted to make this an exhaustive treatment of the subject, but rather to indicate briefly some of its general bearings and a method of approach. I have tried to keep in mind the needs of the beginner in ecology.

An ecological point of view is described more fully than the other subjects discussed, so that the student may see the need of familiarity with those tests or criteria by means of which he may be able to determine for himself ecological relations and the validity of ecological studies. The other phases are treated less fully in the discussions and with more detail bibliographically so that this may be a useful source book. The geographical (in the ordinary sense of the word) aspect has been deliberately omitted. The references should be looked upon from the standpoint presented in the general portions of this book, and if the facts and inferences aid in the interpretation of the relations which exist[Pg vi] between animals and the sum total of their environments, one may fairly consider that they are of ecological worth.

In the arrangement of the references I have tried to group related papers, but many defy any single system. Some of the publications deserve to be in several lists, but little duplication has been made, as this would unduly prolong the lists. The annotations will supplement the titles and their grouping in indicating the contents and importance of the papers for our purpose. It has often been difficult to select from several almost equally valuable and useful papers. Others with different interests, aims, and experience would doubtless make a different choice. It will therefore be a favor, if those who use this handbook and feel that important papers have been excluded, will communicate this fact to the author.

This book is not intended as a treatise on the science of ecology; its aim is primarily educational. This is the justification, if any were necessary, for placing emphasis upon the point of view and the importance of an understanding of explanatory processes and of the methods of scientific investigation. Any adequate treatment of this subject would exceed the space of this volume and it is reserved for future elaboration.

At present ecology is a science with its facts out of all proportion to their organization or integration. There is thus an immediate need of integration, and this above all requires a clear conception of the scientific[Pg vii] method as a tool, and independent thinking as well. The fact that scientific work progresses more rapidly when consciously pursued than otherwise should serve as ample justification for this emphasis.

A word of explanation is desirable to explain certain features of this volume. It is the outcome of coöperative work on the part of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and certain members of the Ecological Survey Committee of the Illinois Academy of Science, Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson. A local ecological study was made, as a piece of coöperative work, and directions for study were to be an introductory section of my part of this report. But as this part grew on my hands, with the permission of Professor S. A. Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, I decided to publish it separately. This part was written two years and a half ago, and when separate publication was decided upon, additional references to the literature were added to bring it to date. These circumstances explain the emphasis placed upon ecological surveying and also the brevity of treatment of other aspects.

Further, I am indebted to Professor Forbes for reading the manuscript and for valuable criticisms, and likewise, for similar assistance, to my wife, Alice Norton Adams. Skillful help on the proof and index has been given by Miss Marion E. Sparks.

CHARLES C. ADAMS.

Urbana, Ill., U.S.A.,
June 9, 1913.

[Pg ix]

[Pg xi]

[Pg xii]

“I shall try to show that life is response to the order of nature.... But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study of response, and that the study of that order of nature to which response is made is as well within its province as the study of the living organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both these aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of that relation between them which constitutes life.”

“To study life we must consider three things:

“The physical sciences deal with the external world, and in the laboratory we study the structure and activities of organisms by very similar methods; but if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the living being to its environment, our study is not biology or the science of life.”

W. K. BROOKS.

Ecology has no aim, but ecologists have. The problems of the ecologist are not fundamentally different from those of any other kind of naturalist. The superficial differences in aim are due to the different points of view, or methods of approach, rather than to any essential difference in the character of the problems.

The essentially biological core of ecology may be best shown by considering the relation which this science bears to other branches of biology, a relation which has been admirably expressed by the eminent physiologist, Burdon-Sanderson (’94, pp. 438-439), as follows:

“Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning to think about the activities of an organism is that they are naturally distinguishable into two kinds, according as we consider the action of the whole organism in its relation to the external world or to other organisms, or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each other. The distinction to which we are thus led between the internal and external relation of plants and animals has of course always existed, but has only lately come into such[Pg 2] prominence that it divides biologists more or less completely into two camps—on the one hand those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who interest themselves rather in considering the place which each organism occupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate to what the organism does, rather than to what it is, and therefore both have equal right to be included in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Professor Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate the study of organisms with reference to their place in nature under the designation of ‘œcology,’ defining it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal to its organic as well as to its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes into direct contact.’[1] Whether this term expresses it or not, the distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with the œcologist we regard the organism in relation to the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful[Pg 3] complex of vital energies, the two branches have this in common, that both studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals, butterflies in cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant body—all of which relate to the framework of life—but on life itself.”

The quotations from Brooks, on a preceding page, show even more explicitly the intimate relation which exists between biology and ecology. At first glance they may seem to prove almost too much—that biology and ecology are synonymous. They show at least that ecology is concerned with fundamental biological problems—the responses of organisms to their complete environments.

The relations which different branches of ecology bear to one another may be discussed under three headings, individual, aggregate, and associational ecology. These phases are superficially so distinct that students of one branch may be almost unaware of the existence of the coördinate branches and may not realize that each is a part of the larger unit.

Individual Ecology.—The study of individual ecology is the investigation of the development (process of formation) of the structure, function, and behavior of a given individual or kind of animal from the standpoint of its relations and responses to the complete environment. All ecologically significant facts should be considered. Such a study may be devoted to an animal, as, for example, a bumblebee, a crawfish, or a garter snake, and may be limited to a single habitat or locality, or extended[Pg 4] throughout the entire geographic range of an animal. From this standpoint the individual studied becomes the hub of the microcosm, from which all relations and responses radiate. Most of the physiological studies of ecological bearing and many investigations of animal behavior have been made from this viewpoint. The organism is thus considered as an agent which, transforming and utilizing substance and energy, produces a varied number of physiological conditions and forms of activity, which in turn furnish the basis for the constant process of response between the organism and its environment.

Aggregate Ecology.—The study of aggregate ecology is the investigation of the ecological development, relations, and responses of animals based upon hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family community, or in genera, families, orders, etc. These groups or aggregates are made the basis for the ecologic study, as a hive of bees, birds, dragon flies (Odonata), the genus Bombus. From this approach the activities and responses of the group are traced throughout all environments and associations within the area studied, or throughout the world, and its responses and adjustments to the whole environment receive primary attention. The hereditary or taxonomic unit is here the hub of the microcosm. Perhaps most of the contributions to ecology by the taxonomists are made from this standpoint. Here also the aggregate is considered as an agent or entity which produces many kinds of activities and adjustments to the environment.

[Pg 5]

Associational Ecology.—Associational ecology is devoted to the investigation of the development, interrelations, and responses of animals which are grouped or associated in the same habitats and environments. In this case the associates in a given association and habitat are considered as a unit, whose activities and interrelations and responses are investigated in the same manner as if it were a single animal. The interactions among members of an association are to be compared to the similar relations existing between the different cells, organs, or activities of a single individual. Such groupings have a composition which has developed into an arrangement, or “spacing,” of individuals within it, and which produces a particular plan or pattern, as a result of the innumerable responsive activities on the part of the individuals which live together. For example, when the animals living in a small brook, the littoral zone of a lake, in a colony of breeding gulls, or on the floor of a forest, are treated as a unit, the entire history of the animals in the habitat is considered as a response to the conditions of life.

In this form of study the association becomes the center of all radiating relations and responses. Such an association is an agent which transforms substance and energy, producing varied physiological conditions and responses in the continuous process of adjustment “which constitutes life.” The physiological needs and states of an association have as real existence in individual animals as have[Pg 6] similar needs in the cell or cells which compose the animal body. The mere statement of the facts of such relations is enough to make valid such a comparison.

For the associational aspect of ecology the German naturalist, Möbius, proposed in 1877 the term “biocœnosis.” The meaning of this he expressed very clearly and concisely, and on account of its relatively obscure publication, in a paper devoted to oyster culture, it has not gained the circulation among zoölogists which its importance merits. His statement (Möbius, ’83, p. 723) is as follows:

“Every oyster-bed is thus, to a certain degree, a community of living beings, a collection of species, and a massing of individuals, which find here everything necessary for their growth and continuance, such as suitable soil, sufficient food, the requisite percentage of salt, and a temperature favorable to their development. Each species which lives here is represented by the greatest number of individuals which can grow to maturity subject to the conditions which surround them, for among all species the number of individuals which arrive at maturity at each breeding period is much smaller than the number of germs produced at that time. The total number of mature individuals of all the species living together in any region is the sum of the survivors of all the germs which have been produced at all past breeding or brood periods; and this sum of matured germs represents a certain quantum of life which enters into a certain number of individuals, and which,[Pg 7] as does all life, gains permanence by means of transmission. Science possesses, as yet, no word by which such a community of living beings may be designated; no word for a community where the sum of species and individuals, beings mutually limited and selected under the average external conditions of life, have, by means of transmission, continued in possession of a certain definite territory. I propose the word Biocænosis[2] for such a community. Any change in any of the relative factors of a biocönose produces changes in other factors of the same. If, at any time, one of the external conditions of life should deviate for a long time from its ordinary mean, the entire biocönose, or community, would be transformed. It would also be transformed, if the number of individuals of a particular species increased or diminished through the instrumentality of man, or if one species entirely disappeared from, or a new species entered into, the community.” (See Figure 1).

The three methods of approach to ecological study are not so distinct as they appear at first thought. With perfecting knowledge the network of interrelations increases and the paths converge. Then also the study of the individual behavior of “social” animals, as ants, white ants, bees, or birds which live and breed in colonies, shows transitional stages from the individual unit to that of the family, the colony, and on to the association. Yet the advantage of each point of view should be recognized as an aid in the analysis and synthesis of any problem.

[Pg 8]

Some students feel that the study of individual ecology should precede that of the associational. Within certain limits this is true, but if our general knowledge of biology had waited for the perfection of our knowledge of the individual cells of animals, the results would have been disastrous to all concerned. Even now our knowledge of these subjects is very incomplete. For similar reasons there should be no delay in studying animal aggregates and associations.

A combination of ecological and taxonomic study generally appeals most strongly to those students who have made a specialty of some group of animals. They are familiar with certain forms, have some confidence in taxonomic methods, and frequently have given some attention to habits, life histories, and to collecting. To those who like the descriptive aspect of taxonomy, ecological studies also offer a new field for further description and classification. At present perhaps the majority of ecological students have entered the subject through taxonomy. It is the almost universal verdict of such students that it has required much effort on their part to make the change in the point of view. Such a change cannot be made by a simple resolve, but requires a modification of the habits of the mind, which will be attended by a distinct consciousness of effort. As in other habits, reversion to the older attitude of mind is very easy. This change in point of view is a problem in habit formation, a study of the mental behavior of the ecologist, which is in reality the main topic[Pg 9] thus far discussed. One may attempt to make such a change and find that he does not have sufficient modifiability to make it permanent, so that it is only for the moment, during actual collision with some stubborn fact, that he is able to realize ecological relations and an ecological point of view.

To the physiologist, however, individual ecology tends to appeal most strongly, and he, perhaps on account of the preponderance of analytical methods in his work, feels that this is the safest and most important aspect. This statement is perhaps also true of most students of animal behavior. This is largely due to the great present need of analytical methods in these lines, and perhaps indicates a stage in the development of their science rather than a permanent condition. Later a synthetic development will probably become more prominent, and with it will come a change in estimating relative values. Generally physiologists allow for a greater influence of the environment than do many other students. They are impressed with the dependence of organisms upon their environment, and the study of their reactions only reinforces this conception.

The ecologist who studies the responses of animals cannot help being impressed with the processes of adjustment, and with adaptation as a process. It is adaptation as a process, rather than as a product, which perhaps interests him most, and emphasis needs to be placed upon this distinction. The problem of adaptation as a process may be a different and separate one from that of evolution, but individual[Pg 10] animals must have shown adjustive adaptation, or there could have been no perpetuation to continue the struggle of adjustment. Ecological problems are likely to raise a question as to the relative importance of adaptation and evolution—if they are separate problems. The present generation has perhaps been more deeply impressed by evolution as a process, than by adaptation as a process.

The ecology of living animals is only the latest chapter in the volume on this subject; the preceding chapters will contain a history of the indefinitely long series of ecological responses which have taken place in the geologic past. Here is where the ecologist and paleontologist and geologist find common ground. The ecology of living animals must furnish us with whatever firm basis we have for the interpretation of the conditions of life in the past, upon which the paleontologist, stratigrapher, or paleogeographer must depend, at least in part, for his interpretations.

With still another training and interest, as in the case of those especially interested in human affairs, such as the sociologist, the physician, the sanitary expert, and the agriculturist, we may ultimately expect a greater appreciation for the associational aspect because of the social or associational character of human society. The associational is the phase of animal activity which may be considered as the form of animal behavior which has developed into the human social relations. It is a response to the complete organic and inorganic environment.

[Pg 11]

It is rather natural that in a relatively newly recognized subject like ecology this human aspect has not been very fully discussed. For practical reasons the ecology of man has been developed largely independent of that of animals; just as human physiology and psychology have been developed relatively independent of comparative or general physiological psychology. To the mutual advantage of these subjects they are now rapidly converging, and we may anticipate a similar relation between general animal ecology and the ecology of man. In a general treatise on animal ecology the human phase should not receive undue emphasis any more than it should in a general physiology of animals or in a comparative psychology. But, nevertheless, the relationships of man and his animal associates (slaves, domestic animals, rats, mice, parasites, etc.) form as truly an animal association as do those of the animals which live associated in some forest glade; and in all probability, before any approximately complete understanding can be had of the human associations, their roots and principles of activity must be known and understood in the less aristocratic portion of his animal relatives.

The recognition of the associational aspect of ecology, as well as that human ecology is a part of general animal ecology, is of recent origin. This is very well shown in the following quotation from Huxley (1854. On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences):

“Biology deals only with living beings as isolated[Pg 12] things—treats only of the life of the individual: but there is a higher division of science still, which considers living beings as aggregates—which deals with the relation of living beings one to another—the science which observes men—whose experiments are made by nations one upon another, in battlefields—whose general propositions are embodied in history, morality, and religion—whose deductions lead to our happiness or our misery—and whose verifications so often come too late, and serve only

I mean the science of Society or Sociology.”

At a later date (1876. On the Study of Biology) Huxley says: “For whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and all his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we should find that psychology, politics, and political economy would be absorbed into the province of Biology. In strict logic no one can object to this course.... The real fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing people ... [so that] we feel that we have more than sufficient territory.... But I should like you to recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised if it occasionally happens that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling with human education; because, after all, that is a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily forsaken.”

[Pg 13]

Whether sociology is regarded as a response of man to his fellows or to the whole of his environment is inconsequential in its bearing upon whether or not it is ecological. The response of man, as an animal, to a part or the whole of his environment is strictly ecological. Huxley recognized one relation very clearly, and that is that the ecological relations of individuals do not currently include the higher synthesis which deals with them as associations, or “aggregates” as he terms them. So far as known to the writer, human activities in general have never been fully and comprehensively oriented from the ecological standpoint, even by the humanitarians themselves, although some important preliminary steps have been taken. It looks as if such a viewpoint might give a new unity to all studies of human relations.

There is still another class of persons, particularly teachers and isolated students, who desire first of all to understand and interpret their own vicinity, and who will inquire which of the three plans their work best fits. If such a one begins with the detailed study of each species, the general survey will not be completed during his lifetime. If he uses the larger taxonomic units, he may survey the field by going over the same ground again and again, with each of the different groups successively in mind, until the entire field has been surveyed. Or, lastly, he may divide the area into associations and study the animals which are found living together, and by studying one association after another he may cover the entire field.[Pg 14] A teacher will find certain important advantages in this plan, and certain disadvantages. One of the most important considerations in its favor is that such a study results in a familiarity with the kinds of animals one actually finds in natural groups, as when his class is on an excursion. The natural history which a farmer, a fisherman, a summer vacationist, or a sportsman acquires is grouped in this same manner. Thus to a large number of people this is the natural method of approach, and is generally of most permanent value, except possibly to some professional teachers or zoölogists. One of its greatest disadvantages is that in most of the literature which one must use, the animals are not grouped in this way, but taxinomically.

The individual, aggregate, and associational methods of study are in themselves subject to diverse angles of approach, and each has its particular advantages and disadvantages. Of the methods of approach mention will be made of three only, the descriptive, the comparative, and the genetic or method of processes. The descriptive method must develop to some degree before the genetic problems can be adequately stated, and the mature development of the genetic may, and generally does, lag far behind that of the descriptive. The reason for this is simple, for it is evident that it is much easier to describe what we see than it is to explain how it originated or its process of development. At present biology as a science is mainly in the descriptive stage, though it is slowly but surely becoming explanatory[Pg 15] and genetic. The developmental or explanatory method is so difficult that every possible expedient—observation, comparison, reflection, experiment, etc.—must be used to secure the proper development of the main phases of ecology. There is a marked tendency in the naturalist to master one system of work, as observation or experiment, and to use it as a tool almost exclusively, turning from one phase of the subject to another, and continuing the use of the same method. This way of working is favorable to a good technique, but its weakness is that it often tends to give its user a feeling of the great superiority and reliability of the result reached by his method, and a correspondingly less appreciative recognition of results secured by other methods. To observe, to experiment, to reflect, to dissect, to stain, and to collect are only partial methods of investigation, and this fact should be realized and be kept in mind when estimating values and planning work.

The aim of the ecologist is professedly genetic or explanatory because it is the study of responses to all conditions of the complete environment. But these responses must be described, and the conditions influencing them as well, so that a descriptive aspect is an essential part in all phases of ecology. In the study of the responses of an individual, an order, or an association, pure description of the responses is necessary; but a description which will at once describe and show the working of the processes by which the results were produced, is of quite a different[Pg 16] order. This phase of explanation has been most concisely expressed and applied by the students of the physical sciences, and biologists may profit much from a study of their methods.

When, however, we turn to the viewpoint of the development of the science of ecology as a whole, a symmetrical development of the subject is most desirable. The preponderating influence of any special point of view tends, like dominance in general, to smother or suppress other germinating and competing ideas. The different special interests each have their advantages and disadvantages, as does a general interest. Diversity in students leads to diversity in the development of the subject, and a variety of emotional appeals to the student has its advantages. And just as the special student should devote some attention to the general bearing of his work, so also should the student of the general aspects cultivate some special field of interest.

The preceding discussion of the aims and methods in ecological study has been intended to indicate some of its general bearings, and to give the student some idea of the tests or criteria which may be used to aid in steering his course through the maze of observations which he may make and the opinions which he encounters. It is of equal importance for the student to be able to perceive ecological relations as recorded by others, because one person’s experience is so limited compared with the general body of recorded fact and inference. Furthermore, there are also so many degrees and kinds of[Pg 17] work that go by the name ecological, which may or may not be, and so many also which are truly ecological but which do not pass under that name, that it is necessary that the student shall be able to see through its diverse guises and recognize its essential character. Whenever the question arises as to the ecological character of a fact, inference, or conclusion, its ecological validity may be tested in the following way:

Do the facts, inferences, or conclusions show a response to the inorganic or organic environment:

1. As an individual of a species or kind of animal?

2. As a group of taxonomically related animals?

3. As an association of interacting animals?

REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

In this I have listed only those papers which have seemed to me particularly significant because of their point of view, regardless of whether or not they are primarily zoölogical or specifically mention ecology.

Brooks, W. K.

Ganong, W. F.

Burdon-Sanderson, J. S.

Möbius, K.

Dahl, F.

Wasmann, E.

Wheeler, W. M.

[Pg 19]

St. Hilaire, I. Geoffray.

Lankester, E. R.

Forbes, S. A.

Herdmann, W. A.

Emery, C.

Clements, F. E.

Adams, Chas. C.

Shelford, V. E.

Case, E. C.

[Pg 22]

Wheeler, W. M.

Flahault, C., and Schröter, C.

White, C. A.

Grabau, A. W.

Walther, J.

Adams, Chas. C.

“I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact ... that a comprehensive survey of our entire natural history is absolutely essential to a good working knowledge of those parts of it which chiefly attract popular attention,—that is, its edible fishes, its injurious and beneficial insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a survey, however, should not stop with a study of the dead forms of nature, ending in mere lists and descriptions. To have an applicable value, it must treat the life of the region as an organic unit, must study it in action, and direct principal attention to the laws of its activity.”—S. A. Forbes. 1883.

Natural history surveys have come down to us from the early days of zoölogy. These surveys have been of many kinds and have ranged from the adventurous accounts of early and daring explorers to those of such naturalists as Belt, Bates, Wallace, and Darwin, onward to the voluminous accounts of the “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” and in the Challenger reports. These surveys have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the fundamental facts of zoölogy and to the training of naturalists.

The most frequent form of survey is that carried on along the lines which most nearly approach individual and aggregate ecology. Most of such surveys give only slight attention to the responsive relation, or only to its most general aspects. Surveys[Pg 24] of the usual character are of great importance, and with students of taxonomic training and interests only, this form of survey occurs very naturally. Most of the governmental and state surveys and museum expeditions are developed along these lines. The frequency with which such methods are used in surveys, which are expected to produce economic results, indicates that these methods are generally considered the most satisfactory. The exceptions to this rule are mainly surveys of fresh and salt waters, and are related in some way to aquatic resources. Except when detailed individual studies of certain species or some special subject has been made, the usual form of the reports of such surveys is the annotated list. It is rarely that even brief chapters discuss the groupings of the animals as they are found associated in nature. These statements show that, judging from the past, the methods currently used cannot be depended upon for a rapid and symmetrical development of ecology, or for the best development of ecological surveys. These must be developed in a more direct and deliberate manner, by carefully planned and executed ecological investigations. It is desirable also that ecological surveys should be conducted along some one of the three main avenues of approach, individual, aggregate, and associational, in order that the science may develop symmetrically. The following are some of the reasons which may be mentioned in favor of such surveys:

As a record of the associations, their interrelations[Pg 25] and responses to their environment—before they have become too much changed or exterminated. This is a duty to future naturalists and to future science. The animal remains in themselves are only a very incomplete record; their activities and environments are an essential part of the animals and should also be preserved.

The study of original conditions is a simpler problem than after interference by man, but excessive modifications result in the simplicity due to annihilation and a corresponding imperfection of knowledge. The value of a knowledge of original conditions tends to increase with time, and will aid much in future interpretations when there is still more disturbance. Thus an important perspective may be developed which will aid in estimating relative values. At the present time the loss of records of original conditions is only beginning to be felt. The possibility of making certain records will vanish with each generation. It is not even desirable to preserve all, but it is evident that many ecological records should be preserved.

As the importance of ecological studies, in natural environments, comes to be more generally recognized the serious encroachments of civilization upon habitats and associations is enforced upon us. Not only are the descriptions of these associations very few in number, but the interrelations of the animals in them are even less known, and the chances of preserving adequate records before their complete extinction are becoming fewer every year. Without[Pg 26] the least disparagement of other lines of work, one can but wonder if the naturalists of the future will commend our foresight in studying with such great diligence certain aspects of biology which might be very well delayed, while ephemeral and vanishing records are allowed to be obliterated without the least concern. These changes are generally greatest where civilized man is most dominant, and in progressive attenuations, zones, or strips, the degree of change produced by him radiates. Ecology has developed only at a late stage in civilization, after much of the environment has undergone great changes, so that in order to study the original conditions, which are of such great historic and genetic significance, he must make long journeys, or invade the swamps or sterile uplands which man has not yet been able to reduce to the average conditions best suited to his needs. This state of affairs is one which, at times, makes him thankful that there are conditions which, for the present at least, man cannot cultivate and utterly change and mutilate. Some appear to think that an interest in such original conditions is of no particular scientific value, or is largely one of sentiment; still others, that such studies have no practical value. But if we come to consider that the original primeval conditions give us our best conception of the normal processes of nature and are comparable to the normal health of an organism, it puts the subject in another light. A pathological condition is, of course, a state in a natural process, as is also any disturbance[Pg 27] of the normal order of nature by man, and each should be studied scientifically. But the science of pathology has developed best as a study of the disturbances of normal processes and is interpreted primarily in terms of the normal; and the artificial should be similarly interpreted—the natural being the basis to which all standards must be referred. A comparison may also profitably be made between natural conditions and the physiological and vital optima of organisms and to the responses which are made with departures from such conditions. Similar comparisons should be made in the study of the responses of aggregations and associations in natural environments and departures from them. No matter how much we learn, the normal must remain as the ideal, and all departures from and disturbances of such conditions must be interpreted in terms of this fundamental unit.

To study disturbed, artificial, and “pathological” conditions, without an adequate knowledge of the normal and original conditions of both the organisms and the environment, is an attempt to interpret the abnormal and artificial in terms of itself, rather than in terms of the normal. If, however, the normal is no longer preserved, then its nearest approach should be studied, but with all the more care and caution. With a proper understanding of the normal, the disturbances made by man will be capable of interpretation in an orderly sequence strictly comparable to that found in the original and natural conditions. The cutting down and washing of the[Pg 28] lands, the draining and filling of depressions, the flooding of the lands, the destruction (or succession) of plant and animal associations (including crop rotation), are processes brought about or practiced by other organisms or animal agencies. An ecological standpoint gives us a consistent, comprehensive orientation of all these natural and “artificial” activities and processes, and shows the unity in all organic responses to the environment. Man’s influence in the main consists of hastening or retarding “natural processes.”

Naturalists have for a long time spoken of the “balance of nature” and of the all-pervading influence of any serious disturbance of it. This balance is, of course, only a relative condition, and not absolutely fixed. It swings from one side, then back, sometimes showing considerable amplitude in its swing, then again its moves are very slight, mere tremblings, as it were. But now and then some local catastrophic event occurs which overturns everything, as when a volcano becomes active, or some dominant association takes possession of the field,—as in the case of man,—and a new order is initiated and a new balance is developed. The mongoose in Jamaica, our English sparrow, and rabbits in Australia are the classic examples of the overturning of the local order of nature by the agency of other organisms. Obviously this balance is not a condition limited to any particular locality or group of organisms. Balance is very generally conceded to be of fundamental importance in the study of any[Pg 29] species or group of organisms, if its place in the economy of nature is understood. A vast number of the problems of the economic zoölogist are thus problems, not so much of individual or aggregate ecology, but ones in which the balance of the whole local biotic association is concerned.

This was the fact pointed out by Möbius when he studied the oyster and came to see that it must be studied not in isolation but as a member of a community, association of animals, or a biocœnosis, as he called these interrelated organisms. These facts are mentioned, as examples from a vast number that are recorded, to show that our applied or economic zoölogy and entomology are fundamentally more closely related to associational ecology than to any other phase of zoölogy, and to suggest that it would be to the great advantage of the students of such problems if they clearly understood this relation. This is also an argument for the ecological organization of a vast number of natural history surveys, because the associational grouping of observations and responses gives the most intimate knowledge of the life of animals in the network of their environmental relations.

In addition to the balance of nature which is found within the small associational units there are the larger ones of considerable geographic extent, which the students of faunal or floral problems frequently call zones or distinct regions. Some of these are distinct ecological units, whose dynamic status should be determined, so that we may know and[Pg 30] understand whether it is in a condition of stress, a process of adjustment, or one of relative equilibrium or balance. Under present conditions in what direction does it tend to move? At what rate? The non-ecological surveys have not put these questions or worked deliberately toward a goal which will answer them. For any comprehensive study of this character we need to have determined what may be considered as a biotic base, optimum, or balance, toward which relations under given conditions tend, and at which an equilibrium will become established (The Auk, 1908, Vol. XXV, p. 125). Such facts underlie all of the problems involved in the interpretation of climax biotic associations, and their application by man. Cook (1909, Bull. 145, Bur. Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 7, 8) has expressed similar relations as follows: “Unless we can form a definite idea of the original conditions we cannot expect to judge of their influence on primitive man, nor can we determine what effects man has had upon the vegetation and other natural conditions. We need what might be called a bionomic base line, an idea of the conditions which existed before man came upon the scene, the conditions which would again supervene if the human inhabitants were withdrawn.”

It is perhaps significant that the genetic or successional relations of habitats and associations, as contrasted with their descriptive classification, both in plants and animals, have in the past been developed, not by the ecological students who live and work among[Pg 31] conditions greatly modified by man, as in parts of Europe, but in the newer, less modified America. In this respect a parallel exists to the development of our knowledge and the process and genetic interpretation of topography, which has also developed more rapidly in America than elsewhere. The process and genetic method which has developed in this physical science has now spread to the biological sciences and has found a fertile soil there for development on account of the relatively undisturbed biotic conditions which still persist in certain areas.

In this connection it may be worth while to indicate some of the ecological disadvantages under which the non-ecological surveys are carried on. As a rule, such surveys feel no strong obligation to record fully the conditions of the environment, or its developmental processes. The environment is considered as static, and not as a changing medium; it has no past or future, it has merely horizontal extension. The problem as to its dynamic status, whether in a condition of stress, in the process of adjustment, or in relative equilibrium, is not raised, or if it should be, it could not be handled. The student eager for new and little-known species is not the one to study such relations, at least, as a rule, this has not been his practice. So long as the success of a day’s work is measured by the length of the list of novelties secured, rather than by the quality and quantity of ecological relations discovered, such students and surveys will not contribute greatly to our knowledge of the economy of nature in the regions surveyed.

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At the present time it is very difficult to secure trained men to do ecological surveying. Even a superficial examination of this paper should show that familiarity with ecologic methods and results is not one to be acquired offhand, but a knowledge which requires considerable special training; not only as much as is usually required for other kinds of zoölogical work, but generally more, because of its synthetic relational tendency which requires a broad knowledge as well as some special knowledge in several lines of biology and the allied sciences. Conventionally considered, a properly equipped physiologist must have a working knowledge of certain phases of modern physics and chemistry in addition to his grounding in biology. A properly trained anatomist should have a knowledge of physiological and developmental processes, or his anatomy is purely descriptive and static. A student of general zoölogy should be grounded not only in physiological and developmental processes, but also in the relations of the organisms to their complete environment. The ecologist requires also the grounding in physiological, developmental, and ecological processes of adjustment, but as well he must understand the processes by which the vegetation and the physical environment have been and are being developed and their method of mutual interrelations and adjustment. It is difficult for some students to develop the ecological phases in the field. There are many disadvantages to be overcome. The difficulties are similar, in some respects, to those of the ethnologist[Pg 33] who is sent on some museum expedition. The wealthy donor of the funds may wish to see a room filled with specimens on the return of the ethnologist, so that materials which have bulk and make a showing take precedence over detailed studies of the habits, traditions, languages, and descriptions of the people, because such studies require appreciation rather than inspection for evaluation. The zoölogical student may meet with just the same kind of difficulty. His institutional authorities often judge values by the cubic foot and pound, rather than by the quality of relations discovered. The student himself who has had an extensive collecting experience, in which quantity and variety have been the ideal, finds it difficult to return from a day’s work with only a few pages of notes on the responses of the animals, and with perhaps only a few specimens.

With such an understanding of the general rules of the game we may turn to the application or art of ecology, to indicate its relation to general problems. With a grounding in the general principles of organic response to the total environment, one is able to see that the disturbances due to man are a problem in the adjustment of the highest type of animal, as a member of an animal association, to its complete environment. The “control of nature” for which men strive is the process of making the environments and associations to order. The disturbances in the natural order may be looked upon as so many huge experiments or trial activities in this process of adjustment.

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If natural preserves are not made, how will the next generation be best grounded in the general principles of the science? Are these complex modified conditions the natural place to start the student, or should such problems be reserved for the maturely trained one? These disturbed fragmentary conditions may be likened to fragmentary fossils whose interpretation is attempted. A paleontologist whose only knowledge of animals was derived from such fragments, and who had never known a perfect living animal, would certainly be at a great disadvantage in such an investigation. The natural starting point therefore seems to be in as nearly natural normal environments and associations as is possible, and with such experience one is prepared for the more complex problems resulting from man’s activity.

By way of conclusion, some of the main advantages of ecological surveys are:

“Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean and the mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity? Was not the greatest scientific generalization of your times reached independently by two men who were eminent in their familiarity with living things in their homes?”—Brooks, 1899, p. 41.

In taking up field work, or any other kind of complex study, a definite working plan is of much value. For this reason this subject deserves more than a mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping in mind the general aim of the study, and particularly the lesser aims which develop with the analysis of the subject. It further aids in the proper orientation and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in from all directions.

For many students it is a good plan to make out a general outline of any proposed study as soon as possible after the work has been started. In the beginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids in the perception of these relationships and becomes an important guide. Such an outline will need several revisions, but these changes will come with a broadening and deepening grasp of the subject. Perhaps the greatest value of such a plan is that it facilitates the conscious effort to seek a definite[Pg 37] goal by maintaining a standard of measurement.

In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan others are useful. Particularly is this true when several lines of work are being done simultaneously or when the work must be interrupted frequently. Under such circumstances even a daily program may aid in utilizing many of the fragments of time which are so easily lost. In this way incomplete observations, verifications, and similar small items which are time-consuming may be made. These plans apply with particular force to field study when several lines of observation are being driven abreast. I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on note slips which will recall items needing further attention, at certain places in the field or on certain subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are suddenly changed and another locality is visited, the proper note slips indicating the points for special study at such a place are quickly secured, and one can hasten to the field prepared for the work of the day. Of course, similar plans are applicable to many kinds of work.

To learn how to study in the field, and not simply to collect, is one of the most important habits which a field naturalist and the ecologist has to acquire. This is one which he must, to a large degree, master alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is usually the case in the laboratory study. It is also a subject about which it is difficult to give useful suggestions, other than those of the most general nature.[Pg 38] Directions for collecting are, on the other hand, simpler and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals filled with practical suggestions.

Field study is not confined to observations alone, but to the securing of all kinds of evidence from the field which will aid in the interpretation of the field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy with the animals can only be acquired through repeated and prolonged excursions in the field. This may mean excursions at any hour of the day or night. Part of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive study of some limited area or association, and by thus establishing a unit for comparison so that the differences in other places are more readily perceived and described.

Before selecting a limited area for study one should make a general examination of a much larger tract, so that one may be sure that the area selected is a fair sample and worthy of the special study. There are also many advantages in selecting areas little modified by man. Such modified areas may, to better advantage, be considered later; just as pathology should be studied after one is grounded in normal histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approximation, is the best foundation upon which to build, and here we have the educational argument for natural preserves for animals and their superiority over highly modified “parks” for the same purpose.

Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged visits, careful observation, and description of the place and animals will enable one to acquire the desired[Pg 39] familiarity. For the study of the behavior of the animals concerned many observations can be made by remaining quiet, carefully concealed, and recording all observations. This method is particularly applicable to animals which live in exposed places, such as many insects, birds, and mammals. For other kinds, only indirect methods of observation are possible, or only when under controlled conditions. For the indirect methods of observation many forms of traps have been devised, traps not intended merely to receive the dead animal, but those also which will secure the animal and reveal something of its behavior. For the study of the habits and behavior of such animals as live in the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive collecting and examination of the animals in vivaria will also be necessary.

Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and fishes we have excellent guides for the technique of study and photographing of individual and associated kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It is very desirable that these methods be applied to the interrelations among the animals of an association. The student of behavior in nature has much to learn from many excellent studies of animal behavior which have been carried on in recent years by laboratory students. Fortunately the line between these two methods of study is breaking down to the mutual advantage of each. The border line between these two methods will give excellent returns[Pg 40] to any student well prepared in each line of work.

Another essential for good field work is a clear understanding of what ecological studies attempt to do. This implies some general conception of what is worth while ecologically; it assumes a point of view or other criterion which may be applied to test the trueness of one’s aim. The ecologist will meet with much more than ecological facts, but it is to these that he should give primary attention. These accessory facts, no matter how interesting in themselves, should not divert him from the main course. The ecologist must select from this mass of experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions which help in the interpretation of the responses of animals to their complete environment. It is thus evident why the ecologist must have a clearly defined aim, with criteria for estimating values, or he will be at the risk of dissipating his energies. This phase of our problem as applied to the studies of a geologist, but applying with equal force to the ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van Hise (1904, pp. 611-612) as follows: “I have heard a man say: ‘I observe the facts as I find them, unprejudiced by any theory.’ I regard this statement as not only condemning the work of the man, but the position is an impossible one. No man has ever stated more than a small part of the facts with reference to any area. The geologist must select the facts which he regards of sufficient note to record and describe. But such selection implies theories of[Pg 41] their importance and significance. In a given case the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts for record, with a broad and deep comprehension of the principles involved, a definite understanding of the rules of the game, an appreciation of what is probable and what is not probable; or else making mere random observations. All agree that the latter alternative is worse than useless, and therefore the only training which can make a geologist safe, even in his observations, is to equip him with such a knowledge of the principles concerned as will make his observations of value.”

Early in field work one should learn that the collection of specimens is not the primary aim of excursions, that specimens are only one kind of facts, but that field study should be devoted to the accumulation of specimens, and to observations on the habits, activities, interrelations, and responses of animals, as well as to all facts, inferences, and suggestions which are likely to be of use in the interpretation of the problems studied.

We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work should be reserved for the return to the laboratory or study. This advice seems to be based upon the assumption that study in the field is not particularly stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand deliberating interpretatively in the midst of the problems under consideration is one of the most favorable conditions possible for the improvement of the quality and quantity of one’s work. It should be recalled in this connection that Darwin and Wallace’s evolutionary[Pg 42] theory did not originate in the laboratory, but while in the field in the midst of their studies, while working reflectively upon their observations and collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter. The classic case of Bates discovering mimicry in his London study instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds not an argument for laboratory study, but one for field study. There are but few subjects which have suffered more from the preponderating influence of the laboratory.

To be sure, it may require more time to study in the field than if one collects specimens only, but it is economical in the long run. There are, of course, certain phases of more indirect observation which can be done best in the study or laboratory, but at present, field study, as contrasted with collecting, is a phase of effort urgently needing emphasis.

The processes of observation and field study and note taking are so intimately related that taking notes becomes one of the essential parts of careful observation. This is also one of the most difficult habits to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write them up, especially field notes, in the evening after his return from the field. Such notes are generally brief, lack details, and are usually of little value. Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe fully whatever seems of value, then to go over these facts again and by further observations increase the number of items noted several times. These observations should be recorded as soon as made, for[Pg 43] generally the lack of notes means a lack of detailed observation. Some observations can be made only at long intervals, even of many years, others only with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of another season, and still others cannot be repeated. It is such considerations as these which emphasize the need of pursuing the safest course and recording instantly and fully all observations when made. An excess of notes is of very rare occurrence. In the effort to write carefully worded notes one has a very important check upon the tendency toward hasty observation, because such a description requires one to think over the observation before it can be expressed. This deliberation is thus made at the time when reobservation can be made to the best advantage, and calls attention to the weak points to which special consideration may perhaps be given a moment later, and thus affords a chance to complete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897, p. 323) has well summed up the taking of notes as follows: “Fill your notebook with descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out for publication only those that exhaustive study and repeated observation prove to be valuable. In making observations be sure you are right and then look again.” And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 326) has said, “The difference between bad observation and good observation is that the former is erroneous; the latter is incomplete.”

Notes are generally taken in one of two forms, in a book or on loose slips of paper or cards (Hopkins,[Pg 44] 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to be very generally agreed that if a book is used it should be of small size, of about 4 × 6 inches, so that it may be conveniently carried in the pocket. For a permanent record such books are a great convenience when once indexed. But when using such notes, while preparing a report, they are not so convenient as the note slips, unless one limits such a report to the form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer began using a form of notebook in which an aluminum cover held the loose note slips. Thus while in the field one has the advantage of a book with a firm writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan. This form of cover is now used by a number of field naturalists. The disadvantage of the slips not being bound might be remedied in part by using some form of punched slips which are convenient for binding.

Each one must decide for himself which form of recording notes answers his needs most satisfactorily. There are advantages in uniformity, but with the variable nature of work, it is sometimes very convenient to use both methods of recording.

Some students have no method of recording their observations or reflections upon their lines of interest. This seems to be unwise and suggests a method of business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of some students is greater than that of others, not so much because they possess superior mental ability, but because they have superior methods of preserving whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others,[Pg 45] from their lack of records, have no cumulative store upon which to draw. This is an important form of capital. Note keeping is readily seen to consist not only of observations, but also of suggestions, inferences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which will facilitate methods of work and the interpretation of the facts.

In describing environments, it is desirable to use the same general method for different localities so that the descriptions may be comparable and show some degree of standardization. This method has been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has similar advantages here. A brief general statement of the most conspicuous features may precede, and be followed by detailed descriptions. The order may well vary with individual workers, but a uniform method is desirable throughout any single piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus one practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe the substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest litter of organic débris, then the boles of the trees and the forest crown and its character, and finally the operation of those agencies which are causing changes in the forest and which will perpetuate or change it in the future. No practical forester would be content to shut his eyes to the future crop of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must not be content to rest below such a commercial standard. To some this seems very theoretical, and yet a farmer who counts upon a crop in five months, or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and[Pg 46] the ecologist need have no fear in using such practical methods. In other words, we should consider the future stages of the developing habitat and learn to perceive the evidences which show in which direction development or change is taking place; or to determine the “orderly sequence of external nature.” Not only should the future be considered, but we should strive also to read the record backward and interpret the past in terms of processes now in operation. In this respect the point of view of the geologist who interprets the past in terms of present processes may well merit our attention. To understand our habitats they must be studied not only in their length and breadth, but also in depth—past and future—as they have all three dimensions.

The preceding remarks bear equally well upon observations of the activities of animals in nature, on account of the absence of controlled conditions, for these methods have almost as much significance as the study of the environments themselves; and equally careful observations and descriptions are essential, if the detailed processes of animal activities and their transformations are to be recorded.

An experienced naturalist finds that from year to year the amount of notes which he takes increases rapidly, and in a very direct ratio to the progress which he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind. The prolonged interest which is necessary to secure detailed observations implies such a frame of mind.[Pg 47] Every one soon tires of any subject unless new features are constantly being discovered.

In the description of the associations in any given habitat, the problem is much simplified if one has a clear idea of dominance, knows how to recognize it, and understands some of its main implications. The dominant forms are the most common and powerful individuals in the association. They may or may not be the most conspicuous, from a superficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon size, but dominance refers to large absolute numbers and to influence exerted. We may profitably compare an association of animals in a given habitat to a play upon the stage. The environment corresponds to the stage. The dominant members of the association correspond to the leading characters, the secondary species, always present, to the essential but subordinate characters. The individual animals adjust themselves to one another, especially to the dominant forms, and to the environment, as the personalities in the play adjust themselves to the dominant characters, to one another, and to the environment. In both groups some individuals are dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated, others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory or parasitic, and all must be mutually adjusted to one another and to the environment.

The number of dominant species within an association is relatively limited, a fact which holds for both plants and animals. A knowledge of perhaps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants)[Pg 48] will enable one to work advantageously in many localities (as in the state of Illinois). Of this number perhaps not more than about one half or one third can be considered dominant. Every one who has tried to make extensive local lists of species knows that it requires many years of collecting to secure a large number of species. These rare species are generally of quite minor importance ecologically. Considerations of this character should be encouraging to those who may be intimidated by the idea of large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should be remembered that there are many aspects of ecological work which do not meet with this variety of animals.

Ecological study does not end with collecting specimens, and it may not begin there. The importance of collecting and preserving specimens will vary with the phase of ecological study considered. In the field study of behavior of a single species there may be almost no collecting of animals but much collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily to the recognition and study of the composition of associations and their interrelations, much collecting will have to be done. Also, when studying the ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as in aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large that one must do rather extensive collecting. But even the exhaustive study of the behavior of any single species will necessitate considerable collecting. The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes (1880, The Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: “If one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass, for example, he will learn but little if he limits himself to that species. He must evidently study also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the various conditions upon which these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comes in competition, and the entire system[Pg 50] of conditions affecting their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but overlooks one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element.”

Collecting is an important means of ecological study. This is particularly true in the early stages of such study, but as the student becomes familiar with species and comes to know many of them at sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the case of very small species and in those studies which depend upon the total catch as a means of securing data, as, for example, the case of plankton organisms. On account of the large number of species, very few students will be able to determine them at sight, but this does not disqualify a student for beginning ecological study. The greatest aid in handling such a varied population is a numbering of the individuals, or lots of specimens, consecutively and recording the full data for them in the notebook. The question arises at once as to how many specimens are to be assigned to one number. No rigid rule can be followed, but in general it is safe to assign a single number to all specimens which agree in all the fundamental data, as date, place of capture, and exact habitat. And for my own part I number all individuals taken, upon which any special observations are made, as when a Phymatid is taken with a dying[Pg 51] or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from the web of an Argiope. In this way the confusion which is particularly liable to creep into one’s work, where he deals with a large number of species, and before familiarity with them is acquired, may be reduced to the minimum. For small animals I have found useful a very liberal use of vials, into which field numbers, corresponding to numbers in the field notes, are placed immediately upon capture of the specimens, and not minutes or hours later when the vials have become mixed, and recollection is less sharp. Specimens which have been thoroughly numbered may thus be sent to specialists for determination. This method uses up many numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited, and it gives greater precision to one’s notes, and encourages detailed observations on individual animals.

In the eyes of many the determination of specimens is such a formidable task that they are at once repelled from any subject which involves numerous species. But as we have previously remarked, there are phases of ecological study which involve only a minimum amount of such work. On the other hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numerous species, but no one can doubt that the smaller number of species found upon mountains or in the far north gives to a beginner certain advantages for study. But if one’s studies are confined to the more restricted habitats, the number of species involved is comparable to the more favored localities mentioned.

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An accurately determined series of specimens, conveniently arranged, will be an important aid in one’s studies. Two forms of arrangement of such determined series are very helpful; one being synoptic or systematically arranged, and the other ecologically, by associations or by a topical arrangement in harmony with the subjects being investigated. With the use of such series and proper caution, aided by the best keys in the literature, one may hope to make many of his own determinations and thus economize his time.

There are many ways to secure the initial series of determined specimens, and some of these are the following: Our governmental departments, both national and state, and many of our large museums, universities, and academies, have numerous experts who are quite willing and even eager to aid earnest students who wish to have specimens determined. Then, in addition, there are many expert amateurs who are equally liberal, so that when all the sources of aid are considered, the list becomes a surprisingly long one. This is the fact that should be called to mind when considering large numbers of species. A student therefore does not need to work alone, but may have the coöperation of a large number of able and willing collaborators. Naturally we turn for aid to our United States National Museum as one of the first sources of assistance, to the Smithsonian Institution, and to the various scientific departments of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, particularly to the Bureaus of Plant Industry,[Pg 53] Biological Survey, and Entomology. These sources alone are able to determine almost any reasonable series of specimens, particularly if they are well preserved. Arrangements for such determinations can probably be made by addressing the proper authorities.

The museums of our larger cities, as the American Museum of Natural History of New York, the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, the Field Museum of Chicago, and many smaller state and local museums are able to give very efficient aid in this line. Other local institutions are the State Universities and Experiment Stations, and the local natural history surveys, which often exist under the guise of a geological or agricultural organization. Frequently they are qualified and willing to do this work.

In very difficult cases it may be necessary to have recourse to Cassell’s Naturalist’s Universal Directory (Boston, 1905), in order to find the address of some specialist in a foreign land, who can help, but generally Americans are the best informed upon their own fauna.

Supplementary to, and in some cases a necessary substitute for, a reference series of authentically determined specimens, is one which the student is able to name for himself, by the study of the literature. Without some special training this may become dangerous ground to tread upon, but every now and then some young student begins in this way and develops such care in determining his own collections, that the method cannot be wholly[Pg 54] condemned. Such work in itself has fascinations, and one may easily occupy all one’s time with it. From the ecological standpoint to stop with determinations only would be like acquiring a certain vocabulary, and stopping before learning how to use the language. Ecological work aims to use the names of species as the most concise method of referring to kinds of animals whose interrelations are to be described and interpreted. Taxonomy is the tool.

1. The Scientific Method.

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.

3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and Proof Reading.

1. The Scientific Method

Chamberlin, T. C.

Gilbert, G. K.

Meldola, R.

Van Hise, C. R.

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Keyes, C. R.

Van Hise, C. R.

Boas, F.

Mill, J. S.

Pearson, K.

Jevons, S.

Cramer, F.

[Pg 57]

MacDougal, Robt.

Lebon, G.

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique

There is such an abundance of literature on the technique of collecting and preserving specimens, and so much of it can easily be secured by any earnest student, that space will not be taken to discuss these subjects in detail. Reference will simply be made to the main convenient sources of information. It should perhaps be mentioned that very few of these papers have been especially prepared from the standpoint of the animal ecologist. The student must select and devise his methods from all available sources.

I have included in this list a few references on the subject of camping, photography, and the use of instruments needed in the determination of the physical features of the environment. A few miscellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods of technique are also added.

Many Authors.

Anonymous.

Banks, N.

Bretscher, K.

Brunner, J.

Burns, F. L.

Chapman, F. M.

Comstock, J. H.

Clements, F. E.

Dahl, F.

Davenport, C. B.

Forbes, S. A.

Flahault, C., and Schröter, C.

Gibson, W. H.

Hensen, V.

Herrick, C. L.

Hopkins, A. D.

Job, H. K.

Kearton, R.

Kephart, H.

Knauthe, K.

Lee, A. B.

Livingston, B. E.

McAtee, W. L.

Neumayer, G. von.

Pearl, R.

Petersen, C. G. Joh., and Jensen, P. B.

Reighard, J.

King, L. A. L., and Russell, E. S.

Sanderson, E. D.

Simpson, C. B.

Sumner, F. B.

Transeau, E. N.

Wainwright, D. B.

Wright, A. H.

[Pg 65]

Wilson, H. M.

In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the student the desirability of securing the following catalogues or lists of publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will show that a surprisingly large number of the papers or works are governmental publications, many of which have long been out of print, but many may still be secured from the different departments or from the Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D.C.

3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading

The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in[Pg 66] his work the student realizes the need of cultivating the habit of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which should become habitual. Departures from such a standard necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections. One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of proof.

Lewes, George Henry (Edited by F. N. Scott).

Wendell, B.

Fernald, J. C.

Allbutt, T. C.

Rickard, T. A.

Warman, P. C.

Davis, W. M.

[Pg 68]

Devinne, T. L.

Wood, G. M.

Anonymous.

Vaux, C. B.

[Pg 69]

Orcutt, W. D.

Woolley, E. C.

Insects are to-day one of the dominant forms of life and are present in almost every large animal association or habitat. They therefore form an important element in a large number of ecological studies. And although facts of ecological significance have been accumulating for many years they are so widely scattered that to find them when needed is quite a serious problem. To aid in such a search the following references are given. It should be remembered that spiders, mites, and myriapods are commonly included in entomological literature and are therefore included in this list. The list is not intended as a substitute for the more elaborate sources such as the Zoölogical Record and similar standard works to be found in large libraries, but it includes publications that are more likely to be within the grasp of teachers and students not located at library centers. Many of these are public documents, and even if out of print, can easily be secured from second-hand dealers.

A student who has access to large libraries will find the following paper very valuable in suggestions as to the methods of finding the literature on many general zoölogical subjects.

[Pg 71]

Minot, C. S.

(Alphabetically arranged.)

Aldrich, J. M.

Anonymous.

Banks, N.

Bethune, C. J. S.

Beutenmüller, W.

Chittenden, F. H.

Commissioner of Agriculture.

Comstock, J. H.

Coquillett, D. W.

Cresson, E. T.

Currie, R. P., and Caudell, A. N.

Dimmock, G., and Knab, F.

Dodge, C. R.

Dyar, H. G.

Edwards, H.

[Pg 74]

Felt, E. P.

Folsom, J. W.

Forbes, S. A.

Forbes, W. T. M.

Forbush, E. H., and Fernald, C. H.

Hart, C. A.

Henshaw, S.

Hubbard, H. G.

Johannsen, O. A.

MacGillivray, A. D.

Needham, J. G., and Betten, C.

[Pg 76]

Needham, J. G.

Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. Agric.

Packard, A. S.

Pierce, W. D.

Riley, C. V., Packard, A. S., and Thomas, C.

Rlley, C. V.

Schwarz, E. A.

Scudder, S. H.

Thomas, C., Middleton, N., and Martin, J.

Townsend, C. H. T.

Ward, H. B., Whipple, G. C., and others.

The Dynamic and Process Relations of the Environment

“Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowledge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.”—John Stuart Mill.

“To study life we must consider three things: first, the orderly sequence of external nature; second, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and, third, the continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”—W. K. Brooks.

“The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of theory and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for there the clue of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to this nascent theory it is his business to attend, because, by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments, or new observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest importance, namely to those instantiæ crucis, which are the criteria that naturally present themselves for the trial of[Pg 80] every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where the transitions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence of former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the action of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion, a new approximation is made to the truth; and by the repetition of the same process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which there are so many and such just complaints, appears, nevertheless, as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and direct its efforts.”

—J. Playfair, “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.

The facts and ideas with which the animal ecologist needs to become acquainted are so widely scattered that a large amount of selective reading is necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and become an organizing center of things ecological. All of the facts and conceptions which he needs are not even confined to zoölogical or biological literature. In seeking an understanding of any problem, conventional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary boundaries must not bar one from fertile fields. Many of the conceptions of the physical sciences, due to their more advanced stage of development, anticipate the future development of biology. This is particularly true of their dynamic conceptions. For this reason we should not hesitate to utilize and deliberately strive to secure development along similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have stated (An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan, 1906, pp. 11, 12) that: “It is thus very apparent[Pg 81] that as soon as ecological phenomena are investigated dynamically and expressed in terms of processes, this science will of necessity become more closely correlated with those allied sciences which have already availed themselves of such methods.... It seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea of the law of change, yet in its practical application this simplicity often vanishes at once when it is seen that it involves the relation of cause and effect.... As this method of thinking is not generally understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude and general sense that its bearing cannot be grasped when applied to special or concrete problems. There can be no question as to the general validity of this method, but what is now needed is to know how these processes are combined and related to produce particular environmental conditions or situations. That these difficulties are not confined to the ecologist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any attempt at scientific interpretation, is worthy of special notice. We are thus able to see why certain naturalists, apparently not recognizing or understanding the developmental processes which scientific ideas undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies of interpretation, dynamically considered, now making such rapid headway in ecological botany, geography, physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a fad or personal peculiarity of the student, and not of any particular consequence. Such ideas confuse the incidental with the essential and suggest a complete[Pg 82] failure to grasp the situation or to realize the fundamental importance of stating explanations in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several of the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical interpretation have already made considerable advance. Here, then, is a resource, at present largely unworked by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas and explanations lies strewn over the surface and only need to be picked up in order to be utilized by those acquainted with this method of interpretation.... If the signs of the times are now read correctly, the most striking advance in scientific methods of thinking during the present century will be in the direction of interpretation from the standpoint of processes—dynamically.”

For these reasons I have begun the list of literature with certain references which deal with the dynamic relations of the environment. These publications are particularly valuable not only for this method of treatment, but also for their content. These papers clearly emphasize the “orderly sequence of external nature,” a conception which must be grasped much more than superficially, if one is to interpret the development or evolution of environments. Although this is an essential part of our problem, as has been so well expressed by Brooks, yet this phase is probably one of the least understood by zoölogists. And as long as zoölogical students lack the proper training this condition will continue. To neglect this aspect in the training of an ecologist is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist[Pg 83] or of a physiological training in a psychologist. For one who is ignorant of the principles of “orderly sequence,” or successions of changes occurring in the physical, vegetational, and animal environments, it is manifestly impossible to realize their development; and the application of such principles to the interpretation of practical problems is utterly beyond his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the phrase “orderly sequence of external nature” is fundamentally a simple conception, it is not grasped without effort, training, and careful investigation.

Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of references with perfect satisfaction. The arrangement which will serve one purpose will not another, and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange the lists in more than one order. Certain general references, or some intended to facilitate the acquirement of the general point of view, are given first, and others are arranged alphabetically. For example, the papers listed on the processes of change in the physical and vegetational environment are approximately in an order in which they may profitably be studied to make the view as concrete as possible. It is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle of change, which is relatively easy to grasp, but to be able to apply it to any condition or location and to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And judging from my own observation upon others and my own experience this method is very rarely mastered, if at all, unless it is actually worked out in[Pg 84] some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical consequences.

Only a few references are given on general physiology, metabolism, and allied subjects, but those given furnish a valuable index to further literature. Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between papers dealing with habits, behavior, and individual ecology, and for this reason most of the references selected are arranged alphabetically.

Particular attention should be called to the fact that it is not to be assumed that the various authors strive to make the points to which attention is here called; they may or may not do so. My aim is to call attention to the utility of the publications from the standpoint advocated throughout the book.

From this point onward in this book the references form its main feature. For this reason it is important that one should not get an exaggerated idea of the value of the literature. It is perhaps true that a large part of the best ecological work has been done with little knowledge of other ecological writings. This was of course particularly true of the early workers, and the best work of to-day does not come from the largest library centers. A student looking over these lists, and finding that he has access to relatively few papers, may conclude that all effort is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even a majority of the publications on the general field, but the relatively limited number which bear directly upon the problem at hand and enough of the general papers to aid him in a general orientation.[Pg 85] It may be of some comfort to the isolated student, with his small shelf of books, to realize that there are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America which contain all the references given in this book. The nearer one reaches the boundaries of our knowledge, the smaller the amount, and often the smaller the value of the literature, and the greater the value of a proper orientation, which comes only with a grasp of general principles.

(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their influence upon animals. The dynamic or process relation of the environment.)

Bancroft, W. D.

Henderson, L. J.

[Pg 86]

Chamberlin, T. C., and Salisbury, R. D.

Van Hise, C. R.

Davis, W. M.

Woodworth, J. B.

Adams, Chas. C.

[Pg 87]

Brandt, K.

Johnstone, J.

Birge, E. A.

Birge, E. A., and Juday, C.

[Pg 88]

Peters, A. W.

Cowles, H. C.

Clements, F. E.

Crampton, C. B.

[Pg 89]

Warming, E. (Trans. by P. Groom and I. B. Balfour.)

Zon, Raphael.

Ostenfeld, C. H.

Moore, J. E. S.

Ernst, A. (Trans. by A. C. Seward.)

Vaughan, T. W.

[Pg 90]

Weiss, F. E.

Transeau, E. N.

Fuller, G. D.

Shelford, V. E.

Cook, O. F.

Fernow, B. E., and Harrington, M. W., and others.

Adams, Chas. C.

Ruthven, A. G.

The Dynamic or Process Relations of the Animal

“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will be—The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.”—Herbert Spencer.

“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic—as processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something happening.”—H. S. Jennings (1907).

Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes, but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an[Pg 93] orderly sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance, resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development, and behavior, in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are ecological problems. The changes in behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance, because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers which deal with those general physiological processes influencing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and particularly those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or “orderly sequence.”

In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal environment to which it is attuned[Pg 94] forms the natural unit or basis for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal. There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909; Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).

In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study, and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development. It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the environment.[Pg 95] All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all will be of much utility in ecological work.

(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged alphabetically.)

1. General Physiology and Development

Verworn, M.

Rosenthal, J.

Fürth, O. von.

Pütter, A.

Winterstein, H. (Editor).

Hammarsten, O. (Trans. by J. A. Mandel.)

Davenport, C. B.

[Pg 96]

Loeb, J.

Przibram, H.

Jennings, H. S.

Morgan, T. H.

Semper, K.

Jensen, P.

Vernon, H. M.

Varigny, H. de.

Bachmetjew, P.

Herrick, C. L.

Richards, H. M.

Schäfer, E. A.

Baskerville, C.

Morgan, T. H.

Mathews, A. P.

Jennings, H. S.

Lillie, F. R.

Holmes, S. J.

Wilson, E. B.

Sherrington, C. S.

Blackman, F. F.

Adams, Chas. C.

Greeley, A. W.

Zoethout, W. D.

Lyon, E. P.

Packard, W. H.

Fischer, E.

2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers

(Alphabetically arranged)

Clessin, S.

Colton, H. S.

Keller, C.

Knauthe, K.

Lang, A.

Locard, A.

Marshall, F. H.

Miller, N.

Riddle, O.

Russell, E. S.

Schiemenz, P.

Shelford, V. E.

Vire, A.

Vosseler, J.

3. Animal Behavior as a Process

“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior,—including the application of definite chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence it,—becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”—H. S. Jennings (1910).

“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”—F. H. Herrick (1910).

“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work, especially of the American species, and I have made the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right[Pg 103] has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some extent to this misfortune.”—C. W. Hargitt (1912).

“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”—C. O. Whitman (1899).

The precedence here given to changes in behavior is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon[Pg 104] processes and genetic phases or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment. Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p. 106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn, and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these four variables: two relatively[Pg 105] changing, one in the organism and one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the organism and the other in the environment.

Jennings, H. S.

Holmes, S. J.

Jennings, H. S.

Walter, H. E.

Yerkes, R. M.

Pearl, R.

Hadley, P. B.

[Pg 106]

Mayer, A. G., and Soule, C. G.

Craig, W.

Herrick, F. H.

Yerkes, A. W.

Yerkes, R. M., and Huggins, G. E.

Yerkes, R. M.

Allee, W. C.

Washburn, M. F.

4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies

Jennings, H. S.

Congdon, E. D.

Mast, S. O.

Yerkes, R. M.

Washburn, M. F.

Washburn, M. F. (Editor).

Coues, E.

[Pg 108]

5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior

(Alphabetically arranged)

Andrews, E. A.

Baker, F. C.

Banta, A. M.

Belding, D. L., and Lane, F. C.

Bendire, C.

Blackwall, J.

Böving, A. G.

Buttel-reepen, H. Von. (Trans. by M. H. Geisler.)

Calkins, M. W.

Carpenter, F. W.

Casteel, D. B.

Clarke, W. E.

Cole, L. J.

Cole, L. W.

Cole, L. W., and Long, F. M.

Colton, H. S.

Coker, R. E.

Craig, W.

Dawson, J.

[Pg 111]

Davis, H. B.

Dean, B.

Dimon, A. C.

Embody, G. C.

Enteman, M. M.

Fabre, J. H. (Translated.)

Fabre, J. H. (Trans. by Miall, B.)

Florentin, R.

Forel, A. (Trans. by Wheeler, W. M.)

Forel, A. (Trans. by Yearsley, M.)

[Pg 112]

Gill, T.

Grave, C.

Groos, K. (Trans. by Baldwin, E. L.)

Gurley, R. R.

Hahn, W.

Hargitt, C. W.

[Pg 113]

Harris, J. A.

Hartman, C.

Herrick, C. J.

Herrick, F. H.

Hodge, C. F.

Holmes, S. J.

Jennings, H. S.

Kellogg, J. L.

Lefevre, G., and Curtis, W. C.

Lyon, E. P.

Mast, S. O.

Mead, A. D.

Michael, E.

Mills, W.

Montgomery, T. H.

[Pg 116]

Newman, H. H.

Newman, H. H., and Patterson, J. T.

Ortmann, A. E.

Parker, G. H.

Pearl, R.

Pearse, A. S.

Peckham, G. W. and E. G.

Piersol, W. H.

Porter, J. P.

Poulton, E. B.

Reighard, J.

[Pg 118]

Reynaud, G.

Riley, C. F. C.

Scheffer, T. H.

Seitz, A.

Seton, Ernest Thompson.

Severin, H. H. P. and H. C.

Shelford, V. E.

Shelford, V. E., and Allee, W. C.

[Pg 119]

Simpson, C. T.

Sladen, F. W. L.

Smallwood, M. E.

Smith, B. G.

Stockard, C. R.

Tower, W. L.

Tutt, J. W.

Voigt, W.

Wagner, W.

Walter, H. E.

Wasmann, E. (Trans.)

Watson, J. B.

Wheeler, W. M.

[Pg 121]

Whitman, C. O.

Wickham, H. F.

Yerkes, R. M.

Yoakum, C. S.

The Dynamic or Process Relation of Animal Associations and Aggregations

“Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult—at least I have found it so—than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, the whole economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood.”—Darwin.

“Every reflective biologist must know that no living being is self-sufficient, or would be what it is, or be at all, if it were not part of the natural world, although no truth is easier to lose sight of. Living things are real things, ... but their reality is in their interrelations with the rest of nature, and not in themselves.”—W. K. Brooks. (1906.)

[Pg 123]

1. The Struggle for Existence

Darwin, Chas.

Brooks, W. K.

Forbes, S. A.

[Pg 124]

Rodway, J.

Johnstone, J.

Adams, Chas. C.

Forbush, E. H.

Palmer, T. S.

Ryder, J. A.

McAtee, W. L.

Judd, S. D.

Stahl, E.

Dahl, F.

Pierce, W. D., Cushman, R. A., and Hood, C. E.

Wheeler, W. M.

Massart, J., and Vandervelde, E. (Trans. W. Macdonald.)

Selected References on the Struggle for Existence

(Alphabetically arranged)

Beal, F. E. L.

Chapman, F. M.

Eichelbaum, E.

Forbes, S. A.

[Pg 127]

Forbush, E. H.

Forel, A.

Gamble, F. W., and Keeble, F.

Heim.

Hopkins, A. D.

Hubbard, H. G.

[Pg 128]

Huber, J.

Judd, S. D.

Keeble, F.

Kirby, W., and Spence, W.

Marshall, G. A. K., and others.

McAtee, W. L.

[Pg 129]

Rauschenplat, E.

Riley, C. V.

Stiles, C. W.

Stiles, C. W., and Hassall, A.

Surface, H. A.

Ward, H. B.

Wasmann, E.

Webster, F. M.

Weed, C. M., and Dearborn, N.

Wheeler, W. M.

Zacharias, O., and others.

2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with Special Reference to Animal Associations

“A group or association of animals or plants is like a single organism in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world only the surplus of forces remaining after all conflicts interior to itself have been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy is necessary to maintain the existing internal balance amounts[Pg 131] to so much power locked up, and rendered unavailable for external use. In many groups this latent energy is so considerable and is liable to such fluctuations, that a knowledge of its amounts and kinds, and of the laws governing its distribution, is extremely important to one interested in measuring or foreseeing the sum and character of the outward-tending activities of the class.”

—S. A. Forbes (1883).

Möbius, K.

Forbes, S. A.

Wheeler, W. M.

Möbius, K.

Forbes, S. A.

Espinas, Alfred.

Petrucci, R.

Waxweiler, E.

Kropotkin, P.

Parmelee, M.

Adams, Chas. C.

Shelford, V. E.

Craig, W.

Herrick, C. L.

Herrick, F. H.

Wesenberg-Lund, C.

Jäger, G.

Melander, A. L., and Brues, C. T.

[Pg 135]

Hubbard, H. G.

Hubbard, H. G. (Appendix by Schwarz, E. A.)

Hunter, W. D., Pratt, F. C., and Mitchell, J. D.

Möller, L.

Lorenz, J. R.

[Pg 136]

Verrill, A. E.

Davenport, C. B.

Petersen, C. G. Joh., and Jensen, P. B.

Warming, E., Wesenberg-Lund, C., and others.

Baker, F. C.

Hancock, J. L.

Dahl, F.

Meyer, H. A., and Möbius, K.

Locard, A.

King, L. A. L., and Russell, E. S.

Ortmann, A. E.

Enderlein, G.

Höppner, H.

Pierce, W. D.

Vestal, A. G.

Stenroos, K. E.

Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. E.

Wesenberg-Lund, C.

Allee, W. C.

Wood, J. G. and T.

Fritsch, C.

a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls

The relation of animals to the pollination of plants and to plant galls is a phase of the associational relation of organisms, but it has rarely been considered (if at all) from the standpoint of a biotic community. The following list will probably aid one but little in gaining this general conception, but once the student has it he will find the list of much assistance. Undoubtedly a relatively new and fertile field for investigation would be to study the interrelations of plants and their pollinators as an ecological community, the association being taken as a unit rather than the individual species of plants or animals.

Bouvier, E. L.

Knuth, P. (Appel, O., and Loew, E.)

Appel, O., and Loew, E.

Müller, H. (Trans. by D. W. Thompson.)

Needham, J. G.

Riley, C. V.

Robertson, C.

Trelease, W.

Beutenmüller, W.

Adler, H. (Trans. by C. R. Straton.)

Cook, M. T.

Houard, C.

Kirchner, O. von.

Küster, E.

Ross, H.

b. Subterranean and Cave Associations

Banta, A. M.

Blatchley, W. S.

Dendy, A.

Diem, K.

Hamann, O.

Motter, M. G.

Packard, A. S.

Scott, W.

c. Selected References on Aggregations and Associations

Adams, Chas. C.

Antipa, G.

Baker, H. B.

Chapman, F. M.

Dahl, F.

Gates, F. C.

Girod, P.

Gleason, H. A.

Grabau, A. U.

Hart, C. A., and Gleason, H. A.

[Pg 147]

Hankinson, T. L.

Herms, W. B.

Jordan, H.

Kofoid, C. A.

Lintner, J. A.

McCreary, O.

Morse, A. P.

Ruthven, A. G.

Scott, W.

Simroth, H.

Steuer, A.

Watson, J. R.

Wheeler, W. M.

Wickham, H. F.

• Abbreviations, 69
• Acalyptrate Muscidæ, larval food-habits, 78
• Accidents, 62
• Acridiidæ,
• courtship, 117
• habitats, 148
• Adaptation,
• adjustive, 10
• and evolution, 97
• as a process, 9
• as a product, 9
• theory, 136
• Adirondacks, aquatic insects, 75
• Adjustment of organisms, process of, 122
• Adjustment, process of, 5, 30, 31, 33, 122
• Age of lower organisms, 97
• Aggregate, 8
• as agent or entity, 4
• ecology, 4, 23, 24, 133
• Aggregations, 27, 145
• dynamic relations of, 130
• Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, index, 72
• Air, vegetational control of relative evaporating power of, 90
• vegetational control of relative humidity, 90
• Alluvial flats, vegetational invasion, 89
• Alps, soil fauna, 144
• Alternating generations of oak gall flies, 143
• Ambrosia beetles, 127
• American lobster, natural history, 113
• Amia calva, natural history, 117
• Amphibians,
• associations of desert species, 148
• collecting, 58
• desert species, 148
• food of desert species, 148
• reactions to light, 116
• Amphioxus,
• behavior, 116
• sensory reactions, 116
• Amphipods,
• distribution of fresh-water, 111
• food of fresh-water, 111
• reproductive capacity of fresh-water, 111
• salt-marsh, habits and life history, 119
• Amphithoe longimana Smith, habits and natural history, 113
• Animal and plant associations of arid region, 148, 149
• Animal associations, and marine vegetation, 89
• and vegetation, 90
• of a lake shore, 134
• Animal behavior, 107, 121
• as a process, 102
• Bohn’s studies in, 107
• limits of study, 103
• Animal communities, 133, 134
• Animal ecology,
• of Chicago region, 134
• of Cold Spring sand spit, 136
• of seashore, 63, 64
• of shore, 139
• Animal galls, 143
• Animal geography, physiological, 101
• Animal intelligence,
• development, 115
• evolution, 114
• nature, 115
• raccoon, 111
• Animal life,
• ecological distribution in New Mexico, 148
• of sea-bottom, 63, 136
• of sea-bottom, food, 136
• [Pg 152]of sea-bottom, quantity, 136
• mind, 106
• psychology, 106, 120
• societies, 132, 133, 146
• substances, influence upon insects, 135
• visitors to flowers, systematic alphabetic list, 142
• Animals,
• adjustment between environment and, 122
• and plant galls, 141
• and pollination, 141, 142
• collecting, directions, 57
• competing in new territory, 126
• distribution, physiological, 101
• fresh-water, 78
• of Lower Elbe, 138
• of seashore, 146
• of small stream, 147, 148
• of soils, 86
• orientation, 118
• play, 112
• responses (locomotor) to white light, 107
• seasonal succession, 140
• subterranean, 58
• variation, 96
• Annelids, behavior of tubicolous, 112
• Ant, ethological observations on an American, 120
• Ant-colony,
• as organism, 131
• as unit, 131
• Anthophilous insect fauna, ecological relations to entomophilous flora, 142
• Ants, 111
• and fungi, 128
• and plants, 126, 127
• Arthropods living with, 130
• associations, 149
• associations by habitats, 149
• behavior, 120
• bibliography, 120
• development, 120
• ecological study, 137
• European, comparative ethology, 149
• habitat associations, 149
• habitats, 120
• keys to ecological relations of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137
• nesting habits of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137
• nests, 127
• North American, comparative ethology, 149
• quantitative data on, 137
• psychology, 120
• slaves, 120
• structure, 120
• Aplopus Mayeri, habits, reactions, and mating instincts, 119
• Applied ecology, 125, 131
• Application of the process method, 86
• Aquatic animals, photography, 63
• Aquatic Chrysomelidæ, 75
• Aquatic insects, 75
• immature, keys, 75
• in Adirondacks, 75
• Aquatic nematocerous Diptera, 75
• Aquatic resources, 24
• Aquiculture, 21
• Araneads,
• activities, 115
• courtship of, significance, 115
• secondary sexual characters, 115
• Arbacia punctulata, 99
• Argiope, habits and instincts, 117
• Arid region,
• animal and plant associations, 148, 149
• associations, 149
• habitats, 149
• Arizona,
• Amphibians, 148
• cactus and insect fauna, 135
• reptiles, 148
• Army cooks’ manual, 58
• Art,
• of ecology, 33
• of presentation, 67
• Arthropods,
• effect of caves on, 101
• living with ants, 130
• [Pg 153]living with termites, 130
• Artificial and “pathological” conditions, 27
• Association, 4, 5, 6, 8, 27, 60, 132, 139, 145
• Associational ecology, 5, 24, 29
• Associational optimum, 94
• Associational relation, of pollination, 141, 142
• Associational study,
• of birds, Illinois, 146
• of lake fauna, 140
• of sand prairies of Illinois, 139
• of sea beach, 136
• of shore animals, 139
• Associational unit, and individual ecology, 131
• Associations,
• amphibian, 148
• animal, 137, 138
• animal, local, 134
• ants, 149
• as agent, 5
• biotic, 29
• biotic, of sand areas, 146
• cave, 143
• climax biotic, 30
• dynamic relations of, 130
• fish, of Illinois, 140
• fish, in lake, 147
• human, 10, 11
• lake fish, 147
• making to order, 33
• mammal, 145
• marine animals, 135, 136
• methods of studying local, 14
• mollusks, 137, 138
• natural or normal, 34
• reptiles, 148
• resemble plays, 47
• sand flats, 136, 137
• short-horned grasshoppers, 148
• succession, 91
• Asterias Forbesi, direction of locomotion, 110
• Asterias Forreri De Loriol, behavior, 105
• Atmospheric conditions about woodlands, 91
• Atta sexdens, colonies founded by, 128
• Authors,
• guide, 68
• suggestions to, 68
• Australasia, cryptozoic fauna, 144
• Balance of nature, 28, 29, 123
• Bark beetles, 76
• and fungi, 127
• Bark of trees, fauna under, 144
• Baseleveling, 86
• faunal significance, 86
• Bass, black, as a microcosmic center, 49
• Bats, habits and sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting, 112
• Beach,
• associational study of a sea, 136
• beetles of an Oregon, 149
• Beach flea,
• habits, 119
• life history, 119
• Beach, sea, as animal habitat, 136
• Bee,
• burrowing, 134
• community of Epinomia triangulifera Vachal, 139
• community, parasitic interrelations, 139
• fauna of dunes, 139
• humble, 119
• Bees,
• and flowers, 141
• as reflex machines, 109
• Beetles,
• Ambrosia, 127
• bark, 76
• evolution in Chrysomelid, 119
• food of predaceous, 126, 130
• habitats, 145
• hymenopterous hosts, 139
• hypermetamorphic, 139
• immature stages, 75
• longicorn, food habits, 77
• of an Oregon beach, 149
• predaceous, food, 126, 130
• seasonal succession of, 140
• snout, 76
• succession of, 145
• [Pg 154]Behavior, 92, 93
• Amphioxus, 116
• and natural environment, 110
• animal, 167
• animal. See also Animal behavior
• animal, as a process, 102
• ants, 120
• birds, 121
• Bombus, 120
• Collembola, 136
• cuckoo, 113
• fixed and changeable responses, 104
• human, 133
• Hydroides Dianthus V., modifiability, 106
• ideals and conclusions, 114
• Isopods, surface and subterranean, 108
• laws, 103
• leech, 121
• Leptinotarsa, 119
• Limulus, 105
• lizard, 116
• lobster, immature stages, 105
• lower organisms, 96, 105, 107
• method of regulation, 105
• modifiability, 93, 105, 106
• mud snail, 111
• nature, study of in, 39
• Necturus, 121
• orderly sequence, 113
• organisms, 115
• physiology, 107
• Planarians, fresh-water, 116, 120
• pond snail, 120
• social wasps, 111
• sponges, 116
• squirrels, 121
• terns, noddy and sooty, 120
• tree frogs, 112
• tubicolous annelids, 112
• Turbellarian, marine, 127
• “walking stick,” 119
• Belostoma (= Zaitha) flumineum Say, death-feigning, 118
• Bibliography, 71
• animals and pollination, 141, 142
• ants, 120
• bark beetles, 76
• caterpillars, 74
• ecological succession of birds, 124
• economic entomology (American), 71, 75
• environmental influences upon insects, 96, 97
• flowers and insects, 141, 142
• food of birds, 130
• forest insects, 74
• fresh-water biology, 78
• Hymenoptera of N. America, 73
• insects, 74, 75
• mammals, North American, 107
• medical zoölogy, 129
• plant ecology, 89
• snout beetles, 76
• veterinary zoölogy, 129
• Biocœnose, 18
• or community, 7
• Biocœnosis, 6, 7, 29
• Biocönose, 18
• Halictus, 134
• Biocönosis, 131
• Biocönotic, 18
• Biologia Centrali-Americana, 23
• Biologic relations of plants and ants, 126, 127
• Biological significance,
• of dissolved gases of water, 87
• of thermocline, 87
• Biological survey,
• of U. S., index to papers on, 128
• ecological in methods, 114
• Biology, 1, 2, 18, 60
• butterflies, 118
• lower Danube delta, 145
• Orthoptera, 101
• Physa, 110
• relation to geological investigation, 22
• relation to man, 11, 12
• sand areas of Illinois, 146
• Biometric ideas, 63
• Biometric methods, 63
• Bionomic base line, 30
• Bionomics, 19, 21
• green cells of Convoluta roscoffensis, 127
• [Pg 155]insects, 128
• Bionomy, marine, and stratigraphy, 22
• Biota, postglacial dispersal, 91
• Biotic associations, 29, 91
• sand areas, 146
• sandy flats of seacoast, 136, 137
• Biotic base, 30
• Biotic community, 141
• Biotic competition in tropics, 124
• Biotic succession in media, 88
• Bird census, sectional, 59
• Bird habitats of Bismarck Archipelago, 137
• Birds,
• adaptations by insects to, 125
• and man, 130
• associational studies, 146
• behavior, 121
• breeding habits of North American, 109
• collecting, 58
• colonies, 120
• decrease, 124
• destruction by elements, 124
• ecological succession, 21, 124, 133
• economic value, 123, 126
• eggs of North American, 109
• food, 126, 128, 130
• food of nestling, 128
• habitat groups, 145, 146
• habitat preferences, 148
• habitats in summer, 146
• instinct, 113
• intelligence, 113
• life histories of North American, 109
• methods of study, 39, 60, 61
• migration, 109
• migration as a response, 109
• noxious, introduction, 124
• of a Maryland farm, 125
• of Isle Royale, ecological distribution of, 148
• photographing, 59, 61
• protecting woodlands, 124
• protection, 124
• protection of useful, 127
• quantitative study, 59, 60
• regulative action upon insect oscillations, 123
• statistical study, 59, 60
• stomach contents, estimating, 62
• study 39, 60, 61
• Birds’ eggs, collecting, 58
• Birds’ nests, collecting, 58
• Bismarck Archipelago, bird habitats, 137
• Black bass as a microcosmic center, 49
• Blind species of cave fauna, origin, 144
• Blissus leucopterus Say, 20
• Blond ring-dove, 110
• Blue flag, fruiting, 142
• Bluebird, 117
• Bluejay, 117
• Bohn’s studies in animal behavior, 107
• Boll worm, report on, 77
• Bombus,
• behavior, 120
• see also Humble-bee
• Borers, wood, 77
• Brackish waters of Lower Elbe, fauna, 138
• Breeding habits,
• bark beetles, 76
• birds, of North America, 109
• crawfish, 108
• horned dace, 63
• snout beetles, 76
• Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le Conte, 100
• Bumble-bee,
• see Bombus
• see also Humble-bee
• Burrowing bee, 134
• Butterflies,
• biology, 118
• drinking habits, 119
• food plants, 77
• Cactus, Arizona, insect fauna, 135
• Cactus,
• giant, and its insect fauna, 135
• insects, 135
• Caithness, vegetation, 88
• Caledonia Creek, N. Y., insects and animal forms, 147, 148
• [Pg 156]Cambarus, 113
• Cambarus affinis, habit formation, 106
• Camp cooking, 62
• Camping, 57, 60, 61, 65
• Capitalization, 69
• Carabidæ,
• early stages, 73
• food relations, 127
• Carbohydrates, effect on resistance to lack of oxygen, 99
• Carbonic acid, reaction of fish to, 118
• Card-index system for records, 64
• Carrion-feeding insects, 146
• Castration, parasitic, in insects, 130
• Catalogues of governmental publications, 65
• Caterpillars, 74
• reactions, 106
• Cave associations, 143
• Cave environment, 144, 145
• Cave fauna,
• European, 144
• origin of blind species, 144
• Cave habitats, 112, 144
• Cave-inhabiting bats, habits and sensory adaptations, 112
• Cave life,
• effect on Arthropods, 101
• effect on nutrition, 101
• effect on sense organs, 101
• Cell and its medium, chemical studies, 88
• Census,
• bird, 59
• invertebrates, 62
• of four square feet, 58, 62
• Centers of dispersal for beetles of North America, 145
• Cerambycidæ, food habits, 72
• Cestoda and Cestodaria, index to literature of, 129
• Chætognatha,
• classification, 115
• distribution vertically, 115
• San Diego region, 115
• Challenger, 23
• Change, laws of, 79
• Changes, in fresh-water habitats, sequence, 86
• Changes, in land habitats, sequence, 86
• Chemical stimulations, responses to, 97
• Chemical studies on the cell and its medium, 88
• Chicago, physiographic ecology, 88
• Chicago region, animal communities, 134
• Chinch-bug, 20
• Chorology, 2
• Chrysomelid beetles, evolution, 119
• Chrysomelidæ,
• aquatic, 75
• food habits, 72
• Cicindela, 90
• Cicindelidæ,
• habits, 121
• life histories and larval habits, 118
• Ciliary action of shell-fish, 114
• Circulars of U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Index to, 73
• Clams,
• eaten by Fulgur, 110
• eaten by Sycotypus, 110
• growth of the soft, 114
• hard, 114
• life history of the common, 114
• soft, 114
• Classification, 21
• animal habitats, 138
• genetic, 56
• habitats, 139
• mollusks’ habitats, 138
• physiological, 21, 101, 133, 134
• Climate, influence upon insects, 135
• Climatic sequences, 91
• Climax biotic associations, 30
• Coccinellidæ, food relations, 127
• Cocooning habits of spiders, 118
• Cold-blooded vertebrates, digestion influenced by season and temperature, 100
• Cold Spring Beach, Collembola, 136
• Cold Spring sand spit, animal ecology, 136
• Coleoptera,
• [Pg 157]centers of dispersal, North American, 145
• food, 76, 77
• insectivorous, 127
• of Isle Royale, 145
• transformations described, 72
• Collecting, 49, 50, 59, 61
• directions for, 39
• natural history specimens, 63
• of specimens, 49, 50
• Collembola, Cold Spring Beach, 136
• Colonial forms, 132
• Colonies founded by Atta sexdens, 128
• Color changes of tree frogs, 112
• Colors of insects, warning, 128
• Commensals, 132
• of ants, 120
• Community,
• biotic, 141
• Epinomia, 139
• gulls, 106
• gulls, organization, 134
• living beings, 6
• social, 18, 123, 131
• See also Associations
• Communities of land animals, 91, 124
• vegetational control, 90, 133
• Comparative method, 14, 15
• limits, 56
• Comparative physiology, 95
• Comparative psychology, 120
• French work in, 107
• limits, 109
• Competition of animals, in new territory, 126
• Competition,
• ants and plants, 126
• cotton boll weevil, 125
• Composition,
• correct, 68
• handbook of, 69
• scientific papers, 66
• Condition,
• of stress, 30, 31
• pathological, 26
• Conditions,
• artificial and “pathological,” 27
• of existence, natural, 96
• of production in the sea, 87
• Conflict between organisms, geometrical representation, 125
• Conjugation, lower organisms, 97
• Contact, reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118
• Control of nature, 33
• Convoluta roscoffensis, bionomics of green cells, 127
• Cooking, manual, 58
• Coöperation in study, 52
• Coral, rose, feeding reactions, 109
• Corn, 132
• entomological ecology of Indian, 132
• Corn plant, entomological ecology of Indian, 132
• Correct composition, 68
• Cotton boll weevil, insect enemies, 125
• Cotton insects, 72
• enemies, 72
• Cotton worm, report on, 77
• Courtship, Acridiidæ, 117
• Cowbirds, 117
• Crane flies, 76
• larval habits, 76
• life histories, 76
• Crawfish,
• breeding habits, 108
• ecological catalogue, 113
• egg-laying, 108
• habit formation, 106
• habitats, 116
• Pennsylvania, 116
• stream environment, references, 113
• Cricket, western, 77
• Criteria,
• ecological, 16
• in genetic studies, 56
• of the psychic, 106
• Criterion of imitation, 117
• Crop rotation, 28
• Crows, 117
• Crustacea, in grave, 144
• Cryptic coloration, 62
• testing by experiment, 125
• Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis,
• habits, 119
• [Pg 158]life history, 119
• Cryptozoic fauna of Australasia, 144
• Cuckoo,
• behavior, 113
• life, 113
• Cultivation of turtles, 110
• Cycle of matter, in the sea, 87
• Cycles, vegetative, causes, 88
• Dace, horned, 63
• Danish lakes, plankton investigations, 140
• Danish waters, ecology of grass-wrack in, 89
• Danube and its delta, biology affected by floods, 145
• Death feigning,
• Belostoma (= Zaitha) flumineum Say, 118
• instinct, 113
• Nepa apiculata Say, 118
• Ranatra, 113
• Death of lower organisms, 97
• Decrease of birds, 124
• Describing environments, 45
• Descriptive method, 14
• Desert species,
• of Amphibians, 148
• of reptiles, 148
• Determination,
• of specimens, 49, 51
• of specimens at museums, 52
• Determined specimens, series of, 52
• Development, 92, 93
• ants, 120
• effect of environment on mollusks, 100
• environment, 45, 46
• individual, 97
• oysters, 112
• optima, 94
• problem, 98
• Developmental or explanatory method, 14, 15
• Digestion in cold-blooded vertebrates, influence of season and temperature, 100
• Diptera,
• aquatic nematocerous, 75
• catalogue of North American, 71
• North American, catalogue, 71
• Directions for collection, 39, 57
• Directory, Naturalist’s, 53
• Disadvantages of non-ecological surveys, 31
• Diseases, mussels, 119
• Distribution,
• fish, 64
• Planarians, local, 119
• vertically of Chætognatha, San Diego region, 115
• Domestic animals, 132
• psychic development of young, 115
• Dominance, 47
• Dominant animals, 47, 48
• Donaciinæ, natural history of larvæ, 109
• Dragon flies, vs. mosquitoes, 72
• Dragon-fly nymphs,
• ecology, 118
• keys, 75
• reactions to contact and light, 118
• Drinking habits,
• butterflies, 119
• moths, 119
• Drosophila,
• convulsive reflexes, 109
• reactions, 109
• Dunes, bee fauna, 139
• Dynamic conceptions, 80
• Dynamic principles, 86
• Dynamic relation, 85
• Dynamic relations,
• of aggregations, 130
• of associations, 130
• of environment, 82
• Dynamic standpoint, 91, 101
• Dynamic status, 29, 31
• Dynamic theory and physiological problems, 97
• Dynamical interpretation, 82
• Dynamics of living matter, 96
• Earthworm,
• behavior modifiable, 105
• movements, 105
• [Pg 159]quantitative studies, 58
• Echinoderms, food, 126
• Ecological catalogue of crawfish, 113
• Ecological criteria, 16
• Ecological distribution of birds of Isle Royale, 148
• Ecological features of evolution, 21
• Ecological ideas, educational value, 146
• Ecological organization of museums, 22
• Ecological relations,
• of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect fauna of Illinois, 142
• of invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, 146
• Ecological study,
• of cave plankton, Shawnee Cave, 145
• of lake plankton, 140
• Ecological succession, 21, 90, 101, 124
• birds, 124, 133
• causes in ponds, 133
• fish in ponds and streams, 133
• land animals, 133
• mammals of Isle Royale, 145
• on an oyster reef, 112
• Ecological surveys, 23, 24, 67
• Ecological training for surveys, 32
• Ecology, 1, 2, 18, 19, 20, 60
• and economic problems, 114
• and geology, 22
• art of, 33
• associational, 24
• fish of Walnut Lake, 147
• history, 133, 138
• point of view, 8
• relation to economic entomology, 21
• relation to geology and paleontology, 10
• relation to man, 10, 11
• relation to physiology, 8
• relation to sociology, 10
• relation to teaching, 13, 14
• research methods, 88
• Economic entomology, 29, 71, 74, 75
• bibliography, 74, 75
• bibliography of American, 71, 75
• relation to ecology, 21
• Economic problems and ecology, 114
• Economic value,
• of birds, 126
• of Pecten irradians, 108
• Economic zoölogist, 29
• Economic zoölogy, 29
• Educational value of ecological ideas, 146
• Effects, similar, of diverse stimuli, 98
• Egg-laying crawfish, 108
• Egg-laying sites, Orthoptera, 137
• Eggs,
• collecting birds’, 58
• of birds of North America, 109
• Elbe River, fauna of lower, 138
• Emergency surgery, 65
• Emotion in pigeons, 110
• Enchytræidæ, 58
• Encroachments of civilization, 26
• Enemies, protection of animals from, 125
• English in science, better, 67
• English sparrow, 28, 117
• psychology, 117
• Entomological Commission,
• of U. S., report on cotton and boll worm, 77
• of U. S., report on Rocky Mountain locust, 76
• of U. S., report on western cricket, 77
• Entomological ecology of Indian corn plant, 132
• Entomological work of Townend Glover, 73
• Entomological writings of A. S. Packard, 74
• Entomologists’ reports,
• Illinois, index, 74
• Missouri, 77
• New York, 74
• Entomology,
• bibliography of American economic, 71, 75
• catalogue of publications on, 71
• [Pg 160]economic, see Economic entomology
• Entomophilous flora, ecological relations to anthophilous insect fauna, 142
• Environment, 5
• and the animal, adjustment between, 122
• describing, 45
• development, 45, 46
• effect on development of mollusks, 100
• effect on insects, 96, 97
• effect on limpet, 101
• effect on snails, 100
• fish, 64, 118
• fitness, 85
• great changes, 26
• gross evolution, 86
• making to order, 33
• natural, and behavior, 110
• natural or normal, 34
• orderly sequence, 79
• original conditions, 25, 26
• parasites, 126
• sequence of changes, 104
• Epeira, habits, instincts, 117
• Ephemeridæ, 76
• Epinomia triangulifera Vachal, bee community, 139
• Equilibrium, relative, 30, 31
• Ethological maladjustments of ants, 126
• Ethological observations on an ant, 120
• Ethological study, comparative, of spiders, 138
• Ethology, 18, 19, 21, 59
• and mutation theory, 22
• ants, comparative, 149
• diagram of subdivisions, 133
• history, 133
• subdivisions, in diagrams, 133
• Europe,
• cave fauna, 144
• plant galls, 143
• Evaporating power of air, vegetational control of, relative, 90
• Evaporation,
• and plant societies, 90
• and soil moisture, 62
• open and wooded areas, 91
• plant societies and, 64
• Evolution, 9
• and adaptation, 97
• as a process, 10
• ecological features of, 21
• experimental, 96
• mutual aid a factor of, 133
• of life and Salpa, 123
• organic, and baseleveling, 86
• Existence,
• natural conditions, 96
• struggle for, 2, 122, 123
• Experiment Station Record, 76
• Experimental evolution, 96
• Experimental morphology, 95
• Experimental study, limits, 103
• Experimental zoölogy, 96
• Explanatory or developmental method, 14, 15
• Exploration, scientific, 63
• External relations, 1
• Extremes, influence, 98
• Eyes,
• frog, 110
• insects, 110
• slug, 110
• snail, 110
• sow bug, 110
• various types and image-forming powers, 110
• worms, 110
• Factor of evolution, mutual aid a, 133
• Factors,
• influence of the slowest, 98
• limiting, 98
• Family, 132
• Fauna,
• and flora of the sea bottom, 64
• cave, 101, 112, 143, 144, 145
• cryptozoic of Australasia, 144
• Germany, classified by habitat, 134
• grave, 144
• Indiana caves, 144
• Mayfield’s Cave, 143
• [Pg 161]of brackish waters of Lower Elbe, 138
• of Kiel Bay, 138
• pond, 148
• quantitative determination in brackish waters, 137
• salt water, 111
• Faunal significance of baseleveling, 86
• Feeding habits,
• slugs, 125
• snails, 125
• Venus mercenaria, 114
• Feeding reactions of rose coral, 109
• Feeding reflexes of shell-fish, 114
• Fertilization of flowers, 142
• Field ants, 149
• Field naturalist, 37
• Field notes, 42
• numbers in, 50, 51
• recording, 42
• Field study, 36, 37, 38
• plan, 36
• Field work, primary aim, 41
• Fish,
• associations of a lake, 147
• associations of Illinois, 140
• distribution, 64
• ecological succession, 133
• environment and distribution, 64
• environment, index to, 118
• feeding grounds, affected by vegetation, 90
• food, 76, 123
• food relations of fresh-water, 123
• habitats of Illinois, 140
• habits, 63, 112
• Illinois, 140
• lateral-line organs of, functions, 116
• life histories, 112
• marine vegetation, 89
• metabolism, 100
• methods of study, 39
• of a small stream, 147
• organ of sense, 113
• organ of taste, 113
• physiological responses of, 112
• pond, 133
• productivity in standing and running water, 101
• reaction to atmospheric gases in water, 118
• reaction to carbonic acid, 118
• reaction to oxygen, 118
• rheotropism in, 115
• sense of hearing, 116
• spawning habits of, 112
• stream, 133
• submerged vegetation affecting feeding ground, 90
• Fitness of environment, 85
• Floods of lower Danube affecting biological conditions, 145
• Florida mangroves forming animal habitats, 89
• Flowers,
• and insects, 142, 143
• animal visitors, 141, 142
• bees and, 141
• fertilization, 142
• pollination of, in relation to animals, 141, 142
• Food,
• beetles, 126
• birds, 126, 128, 130
• butterflies, 77
• Coleoptera, 77
• Echinoderms, 126
• fish, 123
• insects, 128
• lizards, 129
• nestling birds, 128
• oysters, 112
• predaceous beetles, 130
• serpents, 129
• snails, 125
• Turbellarian, 127
• woodpeckers, 126
• Food habits,
• back beetles, 76
• Cerambycidæ, 72
• Chrysomelidæ, 72
• Coleoptera, 77
• grosbeaks, 128
• larval Acalyptrate Muscidæ, 78
• longicorn beetles, 77
• Rhynchophora, 72
• [Pg 162]snout beetles, 76
• Food of animals,
• in Kiel Bay, 129
• of sea-bottom, 63, 136
• Food plants,
• of Coleoptera, 77
• of forest insects, 76
• Food relations,
• Carabidæ, 127
• cave animals, 144
• Coccinellidæ, 127
• Forest influences, 90
• Forest insects,
• classified by food plants, 76
• life histories, 74
• literature, 74
• Forest invasion on alluvial flats, 89
• Forest types, determining, 89
• Foresters, nature’s, 124
• Forestry, 58
• Forests, insect depredations in, 127
• Form regulation, 97
• Formation, 60
• French work in comparative psychology, 107
• Fresh-water Amphipods, 111
• Fresh-water animals and plants, biological relations, 130
• Fresh-water biology, keys to organisms, 78
• Fresh-water biology, technique, 62
• Fresh-water fish, food relations, 123
• Fresh-water habitats, changes, 86
• Fresh-water mollusks, habitats, 147
• Fresh-water mussels, pearly, 119
• Fresh-water Planarians, reactions, 116
• Fresh-water plants and animals, biological relations, 130
• Fruiting of blue flag, 142
• Fulgur eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110
• Function,
• of lateral-line organs of fish, 116
• of mucus of shell-fish, 114
• Fungi,
• and ants, 128
• and bark beetles, 127
• Galls,
• animals in relation to plant, 141
• insect, 143
• on European plants, 143
• Gases,
• dissolved in water, biological significance, 87
• reaction of fish to atmospheric, 118
• General physiology, 95
• General principles, value of, 41
• Genetic classification, 56
• Genetic method, 15
• Genetic psychology, limits, 109
• Genetic relation of types of action, 106
• Genetic standpoint, 91, 101
• Genetic studies, criteria in, 56
• Geographic life centers, 99
• Geologic processes, 86
• Geological investigation, relation to biology, 22
• Geology and ecology, 22
• Glade,
• ants, 149
• associations of ants, 149
• Glover, Townend, entomological work, 73
• Governmental publications, catalogues, 65
• Grackles, 109
• Grasshoppers,
• short-horned, associational groupings, 148
• short-horned, habitats, 148
• Grass-wrack, ecology of, in Danish waters, 89
• Grave, fauna of the, 144
• Green cells of Convoluta roscoffensis, bionomics, 127
• Grosbeaks, food habits, 128
• Gross environment, evolution, 86
• Growth, 92, 93, 97
• affected by environment, 100
• influence of stimuli upon, 95
• quahaug, 108
• soft clam, 114
• Venus mercenaria, 114
• [Pg 163]Guiana forest, struggle for life in, 124
• Gull community, organization, 106, 134
• Gypsy moth, 74
• enemies of, 74
• Habitats, 5, 60
• affected by baseleveling, 86
• amphibians, 148
• animal, formed by plants, 89, 91
• animals classified by, 134
• ants, 137, 149
• beetles, 145
• bird preferences, 148
• birds, 137
• birds in summer, 146
• cave, 112, 143, 144
• classification, 59, 138, 139
• Collembola, 136
• crawfish, 116
• dune, 139
• fish of Illinois, 140
• formed by river floods, 145
• fresh-water, 86
• grasshoppers, 148
• history of their recognition, 138
• inland, 91
• insects, 128, 135
• invertebrate, 146
• lake, 87
• lake beach, 147
• lake fauna, 140
• lake, for fish, 147
• land, 86
• mammals, 145
• marine animals, 135, 136, 146
• marsh for mollusks, 137
• mollusks, 138, 145, 147
• mollusks, classification, 138
• mollusks of land and fresh water, classification, 138
• moor, 139
• Oregon sea beach, 149
• Orthoptera, 137
• oyster, 111, 112, 131, 132
• parasitic fauna, 129
• pond, 148
• preferences of birds, 148
• reptiles, 148
• sand areas, 146
• sand prairie, 139
• sandy sea flats, 136, 137
• sea bottom, 136
• shore animals, 139
• spiders, 125, 138
• stream, 147, 148
• three dimensions, 46
• Turbellarian, 127
• Habits,
• Amphipods, 119
• Amphithoe longimana Smith, 113
• cave-inhabiting bats, 112
• Cicindelidæ, 121
• fish, 63, 112
• formation in crawfish, 106
• formation in the turtle, 105
• Humble-bee, 118
• Leptinotarsa, 119
• mammals, 118
• mammals of North America, 107
• mating period of spiders, 115
• Plethodon, 117
• salamanders, 119
• solitary wasps of Texas, 113
• spiders, 117, 118
• squirrels, 115
• tortoises, 116
• Venus mercenaria, 114
• Halictus,
• biocönose, 134
• guests and parasites, 134
• Hearing in fish, sense of, 116
• Heath ants, 149
• Hemiptera, seasonal succession, 141
• Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue of Nearctic, 71
• Hibernation, 115
• influence on animal parasites, 130
• insects, 128
• Holland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137
• Homarus Americanus, behavior of immature stages, 105
• Homing pigeons, methods, 113
• Honey-bee, natural history, 109
• Horde, 132
• Human associations, 11
• [Pg 164]Human behavior, biological and psychological foundations, 133
• Humble-bee,
• domestication, 119
• habits, 119
• life history, 119
• Humidity of air, vegetational control of relative, 90
• Humus, effect on animal life of soil, 100
• Huttonian theory, 80
• Hydroides Dianthus V., behavior modifiable, 106
• Hydropsyche, photographing nets of, 64
• Hymenoptera of N. America,
• bibliography, 73
• catalogue of species, 73
• Hypermetamorphic beetles, 139
• Hypotheses, multiple working, 55
• Ideas,
• biometric, 63
• life history of scientific, 57
• Illinois,
• ecological relations of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect fauna, 142
• fish, 140
• sand areas, biology, 146
• sand prairies, associational study, 139
• State Entomologist’s reports, 74
• Illinois River, entomology, 74
• plankton, 147
• Image-forming powers of eyes of various types, 110
• Imitation,
• and intelligence in birds, 117
• criterion, 117
• Index,
• Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, 72
• circulars, U. S. Entomology Bureau, 73
• Experiment Station Record, 76
• Illinois State entomologist’s reports,74
• Insect Life, 72
• Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74
• Missouri reports on insects, 77
• Ontario entomological society reports, 72
• Orthoptera of North America, 77
• papers on biological survey of U. S., 128
• Riley’s Missouri entomological reports, 77
• Index catalogue of medical and veterinary zoölogy, 129
• Indian corn, see Corn
• Indiana,
• caves and their fauna, 144
• insect galls, 143
• Individual development, 97
• Individual ecology, 3, 8, 23, 24
• and the associational unit, 131
• Influence,
• of sessile habit, 100
• of slowest factors, 98
• Inland habitats, 91
• Insect associations, changes in, 127
• Insect depredations in forests, 127
• Insect enemies of cotton boll weevil, 125
• Insect fauna of the giant cactus of Arizona, 135
• Insect galls,
• Europe, 143
• Indiana, 143
• New York, 143
• Insect guests of Florida land tortoise, 135
• Insect Life, 111
• index, 72
• Insect oscillations regulated by birds, 123
• Insectivorous Coleoptera, 127
• Insects,
• affecting park trees, 74
• affecting the orange, 75
• affecting woodland trees, 74
• and animal forms of Caledonia Creek, N. Y., 147, 148
• aquatic, 74
• aquatic in Adirondacks, 75
• bibliography, 74, 75
• [Pg 165]bionomics of, 128
• cactus, 135
• carrion-feeding, 146
• collecting, 58
• environmental influences upon, 96, 97
• eyes, 110
• flowers and, 142, 143
• food, 128
• habitats, 128, 135
• hibernation, 128
• Illinois, 74
• in grave, 144
• influence in economy of nature, 135
• influenced by animal substances, 135
• influenced by climate, 135
• influenced by environment, 135
• influenced by man, 135
• influenced by plants, 135
• influenced by soil, 135
• initiating successions, 127
• instinct, 128
• life histories, 70, 73
• life histories in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74
• mimicry of South African, 128
• Missouri, 77
• motions, 128
• Neuropteroid, synopsis, catalogue, and bibliography, 71
• New Mexico, 148
• New York, 74
• noises, 128
• parasitic and other kinds of castration in, 130
• parasitism, 129, 130
• preserving, 58
• protective adaptations against birds by, 125
• seasonal succession, 141
• senses, 111
• social community, 135
• social life, 111
• societies, 128
• stratagems, 128
• study, 59
• systematic literature, 71
• warning colors of South African, 128
• Instinct,
• and intelligence, 120
• birds, 113
• blindness of, 103
• death-feigning, 113
• insects, 128
• Leptinotarsa, 119
• raccoons, 110
• spiders, 117
• Instruments, 57, 59
• Integrative action of nervous system, 98
• Intelligence,
• and imitation in birds, 117
• and instinct, 120
• animal, of the raccoon, 111
• birds, 113
• evolution of animal, 114
• nature and development of animal, 115
• raccoons, 110, 111
• Interactions of organisms, 49, 123
• Internal relations, 1
• Interpretation, dynamical, 82
• Interrelations, 5
• between forests and insects, 127
• of the social community, 131
• parasitic, of the bee community, 139
• Introducing noxious animals, 124
• Invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound, 136
• Invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, ecological relations, 146
• Invertebrates,
• census, 62
• life histories, 70, 136
• marine, 136, 146
• Investigation, methods of scientific, 56
• Iris versicolor L., fruiting, 142
• Isle Royale,
• as biotic environment, 91
• birds, ecological succession, 124, 133
• birds’ habitats, 148
• [Pg 166]ecology of Coleoptera, 145
• ecological relations of invertebrate fauna, 146
• mammals of, ecological succession, 145
• Isophyllia, feeding reactions, 109
• Isopods,
• of ponds and streams, responses, 106
• physiological states and rheotaxis, 106
• reactions of surface and subterranean, 108
• reactions to light, 108
• Jutland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137
• Kiel Bay,
• fauna, 138
• food of animals in, 129
• Krakatau, new flora, 89
• Lack of oxygen, resistance affected by carbohydrates, 99
• Lake as a microcosm, 123, 131
• Lake beach,
• habitat, 147
• débris, Sarcophagidæ with relation to, 147
• Lake fauna,
• associational study, 140
• correlated with vegetation, 140
• habitats, 140
• Lake, fish associations of a, 147
• Lake habitat,
• changes in, 87
• fish, 147
• Lake, respiration of an inland, 87
• Lake shore, animal associations, 134
• Lakes,
• gases dissolved in waters, 87
• plankton investigations of Danish, 140
• Land animal communities,
• controlled by vegetation, 90
• vegetation and control, 124, 133
• Land animals,
• ecological succession, 133
• origin, 148
• Land forms, changing, 86
• Land habitats, changes, 86
• Land tortoise of Florida, insect guests, 135
• Larval habits of tiger beetles, 118
• Larvæ,
• catalogue, 77
• classification of Lepidopterous, 73
• Coleopterous, table of families, 75
• Donaciinæ, natural history, 109
• Lepidopterous, 73, 78
• saw-fly, 78
• Lateral-line organs of fish, functions, 116
• Law of response to strain, 85
• Laws of change, orderly sequence, 79
• Laws of regulation,
• in behavior, 105
• in insect oscillations, 123
• in metabolism, 85
• Laws of sequence,
• in adjustment between animal and environment, 122
• in animals, 92, 93
• in environment, 79
• within the animal, 92
• Leech, behavior, 121
• Lepidoptera,
• and temperature extremes, 99
• field tables, 74
• larvæ, 73, 78
• larvæ, classification, 73
• transformations of described, 73
• Leptinotarsa,
• behavior, 119
• habits, 119
• instincts, 119
• Leptothorax Emersoni Wheeler, ethological observations, 120
• Life and chemistry, 97
• Life centers, geographic, 99
• Life histories,
• aquatic Nematocerous Diptera, 75
• fish, 112
• insects, 73
• [Pg 167]insects and allied invertebrates, 70
• insects, in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74
• mammals, 118
• Odonata, 76
• physiological, 17
• salamanders, 119
• tiger beetles, 118
• Life history,
• common clam, 114
• humble-bee, 119
• quahaug, 108
• scientific ideas, 57
• Life,
• maintenance, 97
• nature, 97
• origin, 97
• Light,
• and behavior of organisms, 115
• locomotor responses of animals to white, 107
• reactions of Amphibians, 116
• reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118
• reactions of Isopods to, 108
• reactions of Planarians to, 105
• white, locomotor responses of animals to, 107
• Limiting factors, 98
• Limpet, environmental studies, 101
• Limulus, behavior of early stages, 105
• Lists, local, 48
• Literature, limitations and value, 82, 83, 84
• Living matter, dynamics, 96
• Lizards,
• behavior, 116
• food, 129
• Pennsylvania, 129
• Lobster,
• behavior, 105, 113
• natural history of the American, 113
• Local lists, 48
• Locomotion of starfish, direction, 110
• Locomotor responses to white light, 107
• Locust, Rocky Mountain, 77
• Logs, fauna under, 144
• Louisiana, marine food mollusks, 114
• Lower organisms,
• age, 97
• behavior, 96, 105, 107
• conjugation, 97
• death, 97
• Lycosidæ,
• ecology, 125
• habitats, 125
• Lymnæa Columella Say, effects of environment on growth, 100
• Lymnæas, ecology, 108
• Lymnæidæ, ecology, 108
• Lymnæus Eleodes Say, behavior, 120
• Maize, see Indian Corn
• Maladjustments of plants and ants, 126
• Mammal associations, 145
• Mammal successions, 145
• Mammals,
• bibliography of North American, 107
• collecting, 58
• habits, 118
• habits of North American, 107
• Isle Royale, ecological succession, 145
• life histories, 118
• methods of study, 39
• Man, influence upon insects, 135
• Mangroves, Florida, 89
• Manual of style, 68
• Manuscript arrangement, 69
• Marine animals,
• and vegetation, 89
• associational study, 136
• associations, 135
• collecting, 57
• distribution, 139
• food of, in Kiel Bay, 129
• habitat study, 136
• Marine food mollusks of Louisiana, 114
• Marine habitats of animals, 135
• Marine invertebrates, 146
• [Pg 168]Marine life, quantitative study, 124
• Marine vegetation and animal associations, 89
• Marsh habitats, mollusks, 137
• Maryland farm, birds of a, 125
• Massachusetts shell-fisheries, 108
• Mating instincts, of walking-stick, 119
• Mating period of spiders, habits, 115
• Mayfield Cave fauna, 143
• Mayfly nymphs, keys, 75, 76
• Meadow ants, 149
• Media, changes in, 88
• Medical zoölogy, bibliography, 129
• Metabolism, 92, 93
• fish, 100
• in the sea, 87
• Method,
• comparative, limitations, 56
• genetic, 56
• historical, 56
• scientific, 55, 56, 57
• Methods,
• biometric, 63
• of homing pigeons, 113
• of investigation, energy, agent and process, 56
• of microscopic anatomy, 62
• of study, 14, 39
• of studying birds, fish, mammals, 39
• Microcosm, 4
• lake as a, 123, 131
• Microscopic anatomy, methods, 62
• Migration,
• influence on animal parasites, 130
• of birds, 109
• of birds, as a response, 109, 110
• Migratory plant formations, 88
• Mimicry, 42
• of insects of South Africa, 128
• Missouri,
• insects, 77
• insects, index of reports on, 77
• Modifiability of behavior of Hydroides Dianthus V., 106
• Modifications,
• of behavior, 93
• of behavior by experience, 106
• Molluscan associations, local, 137
• Molluscan succession, associational study, 137
• Mollusk fisheries of Massachusetts, 108
• Mollusks,
• associations, 138
• collecting, 58
• ecology, 147
• effect of environment, 100
• habitats, 138, 145, 147
• habitats in fresh water, 147
• of Louisiana, marine food, 114
• of Skokie Marsh area, ecology, 137
• Mongoose, 28
• Morphology, experimental, 95
• Mosquitoes, Dragonflies vs., 72
• Moth, Yucca, 142
• Moths,
• drinking habits, 119
• reactions, 106
• Mourning-cloak butterfly, phototropism, 116
• Movements, physiology, 107
• Mucus, function of, in shell-fish, 114
• Mud snail, behavior, 111
• Multiple working hypotheses, 55
• Muscidæ, Acalyptrate, 78
• Museum exhibit of American birds, ecological, 145, 146
• Museums,
• determination of specimens at, 52
• relation to ecology, 22
• use of ecological ideas, 145, 146
• Mussels,
• artificial propagation of fresh-water, 114, 115
• diseases, 119
• eaten by Fulgur, 110
• eaten by Sycotypus, 110
• enemies, 119
• pearly fresh-water, enemies and diseases, 119
• pearly fresh-water, habits, 119
• pearly fresh-water, protection, 119
• reproduction of fresh-water, 114, 115
• [Pg 169]Mutation theory and ethology, 22
• Mutual aid, a factor of evolution, 133
• Mya arenaria,
• growth, 114
• life history, 114
• Myriapods,
• collecting, 58
• systematic literature, 71
• Nassa obsoleta, 110
• Natural conditions of existence, 96
• Natural environments, 26
• Natural history, 18
• American lobster, 113
• Amia calva L., 117
• Amphithoe, 113
• honey-bee, 109
• larvæ of Donaciinæ, 109
• starfish, 115
• surveys, 23, 30
• Natural preserves, 34, 38
• Naturalist’s Directory, 53
• Nature,
• and nurture, 17
• control, 33
• Nature’s foresters, 124
• Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue, 71
• Nearctic spiders, 72
• Necturus, behavior, 121
• Nematocerous Diptera,
• aquatic, 75
• aquatic, stages, 75
• Nepa apiculata Uhler, death-feigning, 118
• Nervous system,
• integrative action, 98
• origin of, in sponges, 116
• regulatory action, 98
• Nestling birds, food, 128
• Nests,
• ants, 127
• collecting birds’, 58
• New Mexico,
• ecological distribution of animal life in, 148
• insects, 148
• reptiles, 148
• New York,
• insect galls, 143
• State entomologist’s reports, 74
• Nomenclature,
• ecological, for plants, 60
• phytogeographical, 22
• Non-ecological surveys, 31
• Normal,
• as ideal, 27
• conditions, 27
• departure from, 98
• processes of nature, 26
• North Carolina, oyster industry, 112
• Notebook, aluminum, 44
• Note slips, 37, 44
• Note taking, 42, 45, 61
• Noxious animals, introducing, 124
• Numbering specimens, 50, 51
• Numerals, 69
• Nurmijärvi Lake, fauna and vegetation, 139
• Nurture and nature, 17
• Nutrition of Arthropods, affected by cave life, 101
• Nymphs,
• dragon-fly, 76
• Mayfly, 76
• Zygoptera, keys, 76
• Oak gall flies, and oak galls, 143
• Oceanography, 21
• Odonata,
• life histories, 76
• transformations described, 72
• Œcology, see Ecology
• Oligochæta, 58
• Ontario, Entomological Society of, index to thirty annual reports, 72
• Optima, 98
• development, 94
• of Chætognatha, 115
• physiological, 27
• vital, 27, 94
• Optimum, 30, 94
• associational, 94
• departure from, 98
• vital conditions, 99
• vital, in caves, 144
• [Pg 170]Orange, insects affecting the, 75
• Orchestia palustris, habits and life history, 119
• Orderly sequence,
• laws, 92, 93
• of behavior, 113
• of disturbances by man, 27
• of environment, 79
• Oregon beach, beetles of an, 149
• Orientation among animals, 118
• Origin of land animals, 148
• Original conditions, 26, 27
• of environment, 25, 26
• Oriole, Baltimore, 117
• Organ of taste, fish, 113
• Organic parasitism, 126
• Organism,
• ant colony as an, 131
• as agent, 4
• Organisms,
• behavior of lower, 96, 107
• geometrical representations of the conflict between, 125
• interactions, 49, 123
• lower, behavior, 96, 107
• physiology, 96
• responses to light, 115
• Organization of gull community, 106, 134
• Organs, physiology, 96
• Ornithological balance-wheel, 123
• Orthoptera,
• biology, 101
• classification of, by egg-laying sites, 137
• habitats, 137
• index to North American, 77
• Overfishing of oyster beds, 131
• Oxygen,
• effects of lack of, on sea-urchin, 99
• physiological effects of lack, 99
• reaction of fish to, 118
• resistance to lack of, increased, 99
• Oyster, 18, 114, 131
• Oyster bank, 18
• as social community, 132
• Oyster bed, 6
• overfishing, 131
• succession of animals on, 131
• Oyster culture, 6, 18, 131
• Oyster,
• development, 112
• food, 112
• Oyster grounds of South Carolina, natural, 111
• Oyster habitat, 111
• Oyster industry of North Carolina, 112
• Oyster reef affected by storms, 112
• Oysters,
• eaten by Fulgur, 110
• eaten by Sycotypus, 110
• Painted turtle, discriminative ability, 109
• Papers, composition of scientific, 66
• Papers, preparation for publication, 65, 68
• Papilionidæ, seasonal succession, 140
• Paragraphing, 69
• Parasites, 132
• a function of habitat, 129
• American Rhynchophora, 76
• burrowing bee, 134
• influence of hibernation on animal, 130
• influence of migration on animal, 129
• Sebago salmon, 129
• Parasitic castration in insects, 130
• Parasitic environment, 126
• Parasitic fauna, relation to habitat, 129
• Parasitic interrelations of bee community, 139
• Parasitism, 129
• insect, 129, 130
• organic, 126
• social, 126
• Park trees, insects affecting, 74
• Parks for ecological study, 38
• Parrots, 109
• Passenger pigeon, 117
• Pathological condition, 26
• [Pg 171]Pathological conditions, artificial and, 27
• Pecten irradians,
• economic value, 108
• growth, 108
• habits, 108
• life history, 108
• Pennsylvania,
• crawfish, 116
• lizards, 129
• serpents, 129
• turtles, 129
• Phase rule, 85
• Photography, 57, 59, 61, 65
• aquatic animals, 63, 64
• birds, 39
• fish, 39
• mammals, 39
• nets of Hydropsyche (aquatic), 64
• Phototaxis and random movements, 105
• Phototropism of Mourning-cloak butterfly, 116
• Phylogeny, 21, 96
• of human behavior, 133
• Physa, biology, 110
• Physical change, influence upon animals, 85
• Physiographic ecology of Chicago, 88
• Physiological chemistry, 95
• Physiological classification, and ecological succession, 21
• in ecology, 101, 133, 134
• Physiological conditions, 92, 93
• Physiological life histories of plants, 17
• Physiological problems and dynamic theory, 97
• Physiological responses,
• distribution due to, 101, 112, 136
• of fish, 112
• Physiological states and rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106
• Physiology,
• comparative, 95
• general, 95
• of organisms, 96
• of organs, 96
• of reproduction, 100
• Phytogeographical nomenclature, 22, 60
• Pigeon,
• common, 117
• homing, 113
• passenger, 117
• Pigeons,
• emotion in, 110
• methods of homing, 113
• voices as means of social control, 106, 134
• Planarians,
• behavior, 120
• distribution locally, 120
• reactions of fresh-water, 116
• reactions to light, 105
• Plane table manual, 64
• Plankton, 60, 148
• ecological study, 140
• investigations of Danish lakes, 140
• of Illinois river, 147
• of Shawnee Cave, ecological study, 145
• organisms, 50
• Plant animals, 128
• Plant ecology, 59
• bibliography, 89
• general principles, 88, 89
• Plant formations, stable and migratory, 88
• Plant galls, 143
• animals in relation to, 141
• biology and causes of European, 143
• Plant societies,
• relation to evaporation, 64, 90
• relation to humidity, 90
• study of Chicago, 88
• Plant succession, 90
• relation to distribution of tiger beetles, 90
• Plants,
• and ants, 126, 127
• and snails, 125
• forming animal habitats, 89
• influence upon insects, 135
• life histories, physiological, 17
• seasonal succession, 140
• variation, 96
• [Pg 172]Play of animals, 112
• Plethodon cinereus erythronotus,
• habits, 117
• larval state, 117
• Poduridæ,
• behavior and habitat, 136
• movements, 136
• Poisons, physiological effect of certain, 99
• Pollination, animals in relation to, 141
• Pollination of flowers, animals in relation, 141, 142
• Pollination of Yucca, 142
• Pond,
• fauna, 148
• fish, ecological succession, 133
• habitat, 148
• Isopods, 106
• Pond snail, behavior, 120
• Pond, solution, 148
• Ponds, seasonal succession in old forest, 140
• Porcupine mountains, 91
• Postglacial dispersal of biota, 91
• Potassium cyanide, effects on sea-urchin, 99
• Potato beetles, see Leptinotarsa
• Predaceous beetles, food, 126, 130
• Preservation of specimens, 49, 50
• Preserves, natural, 34, 38
• Principles, value of general, 41
• Process, animal behavior as a, 102
• Process method,
• application, 86
• of investigation, 56
• Process of adjustment, 30, 31
• in organisms, 122
• Process of response, 4
• Process standpoint, 91, 101
• applied to vegetation, 88
• Processes,
• geologic, 86
• of behavior, 93
• of development, 93
• of growth, 93
• of metabolism, 93
• of research, 55
• regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological, 85
• standpoint, 80, 81, 82
• Production, conditions of, in the sea, 87
• Proof, correction, 68
• Proof-reading, 65, 68
• Propagation, artificially, of fresh-water mussels, 114, 115
• Protection,
• of birds, 124
• of useful birds, 127
• Protective coloration, 62
• Protoplasm, influence of stimuli upon, 95
• Protoplasmic respiration, 97
• Psychic,
• criteria, 106
• development of young domestic animals, 115
• Psychology,
• comparative, 120
• comparative, French work in, 107
• English sparrow, 117
• limits of comparative and genetic, 109
• of ants, 120
• Publication, preparation of papers for, 65, 68
• Punctuation, 68, 69
• Quahaug,
• growth, 108
• life history, 108
• Quantitative determination of fauna of lower Elbe, 138
• Quantitative study, 61
• animal life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136
• of birds, 59, 60
• of life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136
• Quarnerian Gulf, animals associated in the, 135
• Rabbits, 28
• Raccoon, animal intelligence, 111
• Raccoons,
• instincts, 110
• intelligence, 110
• sense, 110
• visual discrimination, 110
• [Pg 173]Ranatra, death-feigning, 113
• Random movements and phototaxis, 105
• Rations, 62
• Record keeping, 61
• Recording notes, 64
• Red-headed woodpecker, 117
• Reef, ecological succession on an oyster, 112
• Regeneration as functional adjustment, 98
• Regulation,
• in behavior, 105
• of insect oscillations by birds, 123
• regeneration as functional, 98
• Regulative action of nervous system, 98
• Regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological processes, 85
• Relative equilibrium, 30, 31
• Reproduction,
• fresh-water mussels, 114, 115
• physiology, 100
• Reptiles,
• Arizona, 148
• associations of desert species, 148
• collecting, 58
• desert species, 148
• food of desert species, 148
• New Mexico, 148
• Research methods,
• in plant ecology, 59, 88
• Research,
• processes, 55
• speculative method in, 55
• Respiration,
• of an inland lake, 87
• protoplasmic, 97
• Response,
• bird migration as a, 109
• to strain, 85
• Responses,
• Isopods of ponds and streams, 106
• study, 15
• to chemical stimulations, 97
• Rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106
• Rheotropism in fish, 115
• Rhynchophora,
• biologies, 76
• food habits, 72
• parasites, 76
• Ring-dove, blond, 110
• River entomology, Illinois, 75
• River fauna,
• Danube delta, 145
• lower Elbe, 138
• River habitat, flooded delta, 145
• River plankton, Illinois, 147
• Rocky Mountain locust, enemies, 77
• Rodentia, 107
• Rose coral, feeding reactions, 109
• Running water, effect on productivity of fish, 101
• Salamanders, habits, 119
• Salmon, internal parasites of Sebago, 129
• Salpa and evolution of life, 123
• Salt-marsh Amphipod, habits and life history, 119
• Salt-water fauna, 111.
• See also Marine animals
• San Diego region, Chætognatha of, 115
• Sand,
• ants, 149
• areas of Illinois, biology, 146
• prairies of Illinois, associational study, 139
• Sandy flats of the sea coast as a biotic association, 136, 137
• Sarcophagidæ, relation to lake beach débris, 147
• Saw-fly, larvæ, 78
• Scallop fishery, 108
• Scallops, 114
• Sceloporus spinosus floridanus, behavior, 116
• Schleswig-Holstein oyster bank described, 132
• Science, better English in, 67
• Scientific exploration, 63
• Scientific ideas, life history, 57
• Scientific investigation, methods, 56
• Scientific method, 55, 56, 57
• Scientific papers, composition, 66
• [Pg 174]Scientific technique, 55
• Sea anemone, behavior modifiable, 105
• Sea beach, associational study, 136
• Sea-bottom,
• animal life, 63, 136
• fauna and flora, 64
• quantitative study of animals, 63
• Sea,
• conditions of life in, 134
• conditions of production in, 87
• cycle of matter in, 87
• metabolism in, 87
• struggle for existence in, 123
• valuation of the, 136
• Seashore,
• animal ecology, 63, 64
• animals, 146
• Season, influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100
• Seasonal succession,
• animals, 140
• beetles, 140
• butterflies, 140
• Hemiptera, 141
• in old forest ponds, 140
• plants, 140
• Sea-urchin, 99
• resistance to lack of oxygen, 99
• resistance to potassium cyanide, 99
• Sebago salmon, internal parasites, 129
• Second-hand books, dealers in, 65
• Sense organ,
• Arthropods, effect of caves on, 101
• of fish, 113
• Senses of insects, 111
• Sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting bats, 112
• Sensory reactions of Amphioxus, 116
• Sequence of changes in environment, 104
• Sessile habit, influence, 100
• Serpents,
• food, 129
• Pennsylvania, 129
• Sexual characters of Araneads, secondary, 115
• Shawnee Cave plankton, ecological study, 145
• Shell-fish,
• ciliary action, 114
• feeding reflexes, 114
• food, 114
• function of mucus, 114
• Shell-fish industries,
• biology, 114
• culture, 114
• utilization, 114
• Shell-fisheries of Massachusetts, 108
• Shore, animal ecology of the, 139
• Shore animals, associational study, 139
• Significance of courtship of Araneads, 115
• Skokie Marsh area, ecology of mollusca, 137
• Slaves of ants, 120
• Slug,
• eyes, 110
• feeding habits, 125
• Snail,
• eyes, 110
• mud, 111
• pond, 120
• Snails,
• and plants, 125
• feeding habits, 125
• food, 125
• in grave, 144
• influence of environment on, 100
• Snout-beetles, 76
• Snowbird, 117
• Social community, 18, 123
• animals, 131
• insects, 135
• interrelations, 131
• oyster bank, 132
• sea-bottom, 136
• Social control, by voices among pigeons, 106, 134
• Social life,
• from comparative and phylogenetic standpoint, 132
• insects, 111
• multiple origin, 132
• origin, 132
• [Pg 175]Social parasitism, 126
• Social reaction,
• beginnings in lower animals, 134
• beginnings in man, 134
• Social wasps, 117
• behavior, 111
• Societies, insects, 128
• Sociology,
• a branch of ecology or ethology, 132
• relation to ecology, 10, 11, 12
• Soil,
• animal life influenced by humus and tillage, 100
• animals of the, 86
• fauna of Alps, 144
• influence upon insects, 135
• Soils,
• moisture, 62
• study, 58
• Solitary wasps,
• habits, 116, 117
• habits in Texas, 113
• instincts, 116
• Solution pond, fauna, 148
• South Africa, insects, 128
• South Carolina, natural oyster grounds, 111
• Sow bug, eyes, 110
• Space, perception by tortoises, 121
• Sparrow,
• field, 117
• fox, 117
• song, 117
• tree, 117
• vesper, 117
• white-crowned, 117
• white-throated, 117
• Spawning habits of fish, 112
• Specimens,
• collecting natural history, 63
• collection, 49, 50
• determination, 49, 51
• determined, 52
• numbering, 50, 51
• preservation, 49, 50
• Spiders,
• cocooning habits, 118
• collecting, 58
• habitats, 125, 138
• habits, 117
• instincts, 117
• mating habits, 115
• mental powers, 117
• Nearctic, 72
• systematic literature, 71
• Sponges,
• behavior, 116
• reactions, 116
• Squirrels,
• behavior, 121
• habits, 115
• Stable plant formations, 88
• Starfish,
• behavior, 105
• locomotion, 110
• natural history, 115
• Status, dynamic, 29, 31
• Stimulations, responses to chemical, 97
• Stimuli,
• influence upon growth, 95
• influence upon protoplasm, 95
• similar effects of diverse, 98
• Stones, fauna under, 144
• Stratigraphy, relation of marine bionomy to, 22
• Stream,
• animals of a small, 147, 148
• environment, references to, 113
• fish, ecological succession, 133
• fish of a small, 147
• habitat, 147, 148
• Isopods, 106
• Stress, condition, 30, 31
• Struggle among organisms, 123
• Struggle for existence, 2, 122, 123
• in a lake, 123
• in Guiana forests, 124
• in the sea, 123
• references, 126
• Studies, quantitative, 61
• Style brief, Wistar Institute, 68
• Style manual, 68
• Subterranean. See also Cave
• Subterranean animals, 58, 86, 143, 144, 145
• Subterranean Isopods, behavior, 108
• Succession,
• animals in oyster beds, 131
• [Pg 176]associations of inland habitats, 91
• Succession,
• beetles, 145
• ecological, 101
• ecological, birds, 21, 124, 133
• ecological, in the grave, 144
• ecological, on oyster reef, 112
• in stages of decay, 144, 146
• mammal, 145
• mollusks, 137
• seasonal, 140
• Successions, initiated by insects, 127
• Suggestions to authors, 68
• Summer-bird life near Havana, Illinois, 146
• Surgery, emergency, 65
• Surveying, 65
• Surveys,
• ecological, 23, 67
• ecological training for, 32
• natural history, 23, 30
• non-ecological, 31
• Sycotypus eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110
• Symbiosis, 127, 128, 130
• Talorchestia longicornis, habits and life history, 119
• Tanganyika problem, 89
• Taste, fish’s organ of, 112
• Taxonomy, 54
• relation to ecology, 8
• Teaching, relation to ecology, 13
• Technique, 15, 57
• of fresh-water biology, 62
• scientific, 55
• Temperature,
• effect of extremes, 99
• in open and wooded areas, 91
• influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100
• lowering of, and loss of water, 99
• physiological effects of high temperature, 99
• Termites, Arthropods living with, 130
• Terns, noddy and sooty, behavior, 120
• Terrapin, diamond-back,
• cultivation, 110
• natural history, 110
• Texas,
• habits of solitary wasps, 113
• wasps, solitary, habits, 113
• Theory, use, 40
• Thermocline, biological significance, 87
• Tiger beetles,
• larval habits, 118
• life histories, 118
• relation of distribution to plant succession, 90
• Tipulidæ, 76
• Toad, American, 100
• Tomahawk Lake, Wis., Mollusca of, 137
• Tortoise,
• Florida land, 135
• habits, 116
• perception of space, 121
• Tracks and tracking, 58
• Trapping, 39, 60
• Tree frogs,
• behavior, 112
• color changes, 112
• Trees,
• insects affecting, 74
• Trematoda and trematode diseases, index to literature, 129
• Trial and error, 104
• Tubicolous Annelids, behavior, 112
• Turbellarian,
• behavior, 127
• ecology, 127
• food, 127
• habitat, 127
• Turtles,
• cultivation, 110
• discriminative ability of painted, 109
• food, 129
• formation of habits, 105
• natural history, 110
• Pennsylvania, 129
• Turtur risorius, 110
• Types of eyes, image-forming powers of various, 110
• Typography, 68
• Use of theory, 40
• [Pg 177]Utah, 55
• Vanessa antiopa Linn., phototropism, 116
• Variation,
• in animals, 96
• in plants, 96
• statistical, 60
• Vegetation,
• and animal associations, 90
• and control of land animal communities, 133
• Caithness, 88
• changes in, 88
• controlling land animal communities, 90
• correlated with lake fauna, 140
• development and structure, 88
• invading alluvial flats, 89
• invading new land surface, 89
• Vegetational change, influence upon animals, 85
• Vegetational control,
• of relative evaporating power of the air, 90
• of relative humidity of air, 90
• Vegetative cycles, causes, 88
• Venus mercenaria,
• growth, 108, 114
• habits, 114
• life history, 108
• Veterinary zoölogy, bibliography, 129
• Vineyard Sound, invertebrate animals of, 136
• Visual discrimination in raccoons, 110
• Vital conditions, optimum, 99
• Vital optimum, 94
• Voices of pigeons as means of social control, 106, 134
• Volcanic activity and new land surface, 89
• Volcanic islands, new flora, 89
• “Walking stick,”
• behavior, 119
• habits, 119
• mating instincts, 119
• reactions, 119
• Walnut Lake,
• ecological relations of fish, 147
• fish ecology, 147
• Warning coloration, 62
• testing by experiment, 125
• Warning colors, insects of South Africa, 128
• Wasps, social, 117
• behavior, 110
• Wasps, solitary,
• habits, 116, 117
• habits, of Texas, 113
• instincts, 116, 117
• Water,
• loss of and lowering of temperature, 99
• running, effect on productivity of fish, 101
• standing, effect on productivity of fish, 101
• Weights and measures, 69
• Wild life,
• photography, 61
• study, 61
• Windermere, Lake, 90
• Wisdom, blindness of, 103
• Wistar Institute, style brief, 68
• Wood borers, 77
• Woodcraft, 61
• Woodland,
• ants, 149
• associations of ants, 149
• atmospheric conditions about, 91
• birds as protectors, 124
• Woodland trees, insects affecting, 74
• Woodpecker, red-headed, 117
• Woodpeckers, food, 126
• Worms, eyes, 110
• Yucca,
• moth, 142
• pollination, 142
• Zoölogical Record, 70
• Zoölogist, economic, 29
• Zoölogy, experimental, 96
• Zostera marina, ecology in Danish waters, 89
• Zygoptera, life histories, 76